The technical ambition of MEGATRON lies in its simultaneous treatment of processes that are usually modelled separately. The simulations track the hydrodynamic motion of gas, the propagation of radiation emitted by young stars, the non-equilibrium chemistry of the cooling and fragmenting gas, and the synthesis and dispersal of heavy elements by supernova explosions. All of these are evolved self-consistently at exceptionally high resolution, following a single young galaxy that will eventually grow into a system comparable in mass to the Milky Way. That choice matters: rather than simulating hundreds of crude galaxies, the team resolved the internal structure of one progenitor deeply enough to capture the small-scale filaments and dense clumps where the first stars actually formed, structures that simpler models smear out entirely.

The simulations begin from pristine gas containing no heavy elements at all, mirroring the composition of the cosmos shortly after the Big Bang, when hydrogen and helium were essentially the only ingredients available. From those initial conditions, the code follows the birth of the first stars, the ultraviolet radiation they pour into their surroundings, the supernovae that end their brief lives, and the dispersal of newly forged carbon, oxygen and iron into the gas that will form subsequent generations of stars. Each stage feeds back into the next: radiation heats and ionises gas and suppresses fragmentation, supernovae drive metal-rich winds out of nascent galaxies, and the changing chemical composition alters how efficiently the gas can cool and form new stars. It is this coupled chain of events that determines the chemical fingerprints later recorded in long-lived low-mass stars.

One of the collaboration’s headline results concerns the smallest dwarf galaxies, the systems least able to hold onto their gas and metals. The published work examines how the first stars can create an iron metallicity plateau in these tiny systems, a regime where the iron abundance of successive stellar generations stops rising and instead flattens out. Understanding such plateaus is crucial for stellar archaeology, because astronomers infer the properties of the first stars from statistical patterns in the abundance ratios of ancient stars. If simplified models mispredict how metals are mixed, expelled and diluted in dwarf galaxies, the inferred properties of the first stellar generations could be systematically wrong. By resolving the interplay of radiation, gas flows and chemical enrichment at high resolution, MEGATRON provides a physically grounded calibration for interpreting those abundance patterns.

The broader conclusion of the first wave of results is a cautionary one for the field: simplified subgrid models may substantially underestimate the influence of stellar radiation and complex chemical processes on the gas surrounding early galaxies. Radiation from massive stars does not merely illuminate the gas; it heats it, ionises it, drives photoevaporative flows and regulates where subsequent stars can form. Chemical enrichment, meanwhile, does not proceed as a smooth, well-mixed process but through inhomogeneous, clumpy channels that leave distinct signatures in different environments. When these effects are modelled at high resolution, structures emerge in the circumgalactic gas that coarser simulations simply do not capture, and predictions for what JWST should observe change accordingly. Improving those predictions is one of the project’s central practical goals.

Dr Martin Rey of the Department of Physics at the University of Bath, a lead contributor to the collaboration, framed the significance of the work in terms of connection. “The James Webb Space Telescope gives us a direct glimpse of the infant cosmos, while stellar archaeology allows us to study the relics of those earliest times in our own Galactic neighbourhood,” he said. “MEGATRON provides a physical bridge between the two.” The phrase captures the project’s core claim: the same physical processes that JWST observes in action in distant young galaxies are the ones that wrote the chemical record now readable in ancient stars much closer to home.

That bridge also speaks to one of astronomy’s most fundamental questions: where the elements that make up today’s Universe came from. Every atom of carbon in DNA, every atom of oxygen breathed on Earth and every particle of iron in the planet’s core was forged inside a star and scattered into space by stellar death. “The elements that make our world and life possible – carbon, oxygen, iron and many others – were forged by stars,” Dr Rey explained. “To understand where those elements came from, we need to understand how the first stars formed and enriched their surroundings. MEGATRON allows us to test these ideas directly by comparing detailed simulations with observations from JWST and the chemical fingerprints preserved in ancient stars.” In this sense, the first stars are not merely a remote curiosity of the early Universe; they are the opening chapter of the chemical history that made rocky planets and life possible.

The timing of the project could hardly be better. JWST is transforming the observational picture of the earliest galaxies, revealing objects that are brighter, more numerous and more chemically evolved than many models had anticipated. At the same time, large-scale stellar surveys are cataloguing hundreds of thousands of ancient stars in the Milky Way and its dwarf satellites, measuring their abundance patterns with ever greater precision. Each dataset is powerful on its own, but the combination is uniquely constraining. “MEGATRON provides a common physical framework for interpreting two of astronomy’s most exciting new datasets: JWST’s view of the earliest galaxies and the stellar fossil record,” said Dr Rey. “Together, these complementary observations allow us to test competing models of the first stars in ways that weren’t previously possible.” A model of the first stars must now survive two independent tests at once: it must reproduce the galaxies JWST sees, and it must reproduce the abundance patterns written into the oldest stars.

The computational demands of this programme are enormous. The project has been awarded 40 million processor hours on the United Kingdom’s national supercomputers, a resource allocation the team compares to running five million laptops in parallel for a full year. Those hours are already being spent developing the next generation of MEGATRON simulations, which will push to higher resolution and incorporate more complete physical models, from improved treatments of radiative transfer to richer chemical networks. The payoff, the researchers argue, will be increasingly direct comparisons between simulated and observed galaxies, and between simulated and measured chemical abundance patterns, tightening the link between theory and data at every stage of cosmic history.

MEGATRON began in 2023 and is scheduled to run until 2030, with the four papers just published representing only the first substantial body of results and further releases expected to follow. If the collaboration’s central thesis holds, the coming years should see the two great archives of the cosmic dawn – the photons collected by JWST from the infant Universe and the chemical fossils preserved in the oldest stars of the Milky Way – converge into a single, mutually consistent account of how the first stars formed, died and seeded the cosmos with the elements from which everything, including us, is ultimately built.

Subject of Research: Cosmological simulations of the first stars and galaxies and their chemical enrichment of the early Universe

Article Title: New simulations connect the first stars to cosmic fingerprints still visible today

Article References: New simulations connect the first stars to cosmic fingerprints still visible today. (n.d.). Original publication

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: Not provided

Keywords: first stars, early galaxies, MEGATRON simulations, James Webb Space Telescope, stellar archaeology, chemical enrichment, cosmic dawn, dwarf galaxies, supernovae, metallicity, University of Bath, computational astrophysics

The survey, called the Treasury of Extremely Metal-Poor O Stars, or TEMPOS, used ultraviolet observations from the Hubble Space Telescope’s Cosmic Origins Spectrograph to study massive stars in nearby dwarf galaxies that serve as the best available analogs for stars in the early universe. Published on September 21, 2026, in The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, the project assembled the largest dataset of its kind ever collected, covering 29 massive stars spread across six local dwarf galaxies, each with a metallicity below one-fifth of the sun’s. Astronomers use the term metallicity to describe the abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, and the universe’s first galaxies contained far fewer of these heavy elements than mature galaxies do today.

“Webb opened up a whole bunch of new questions about the evolution of these early galaxies—they’re weird,” said Grace Telford, assistant professor in the Department of Physics & Astronomy at the University of Utah and lead author of the study. “That’s the scientific motivation behind the TEMPOS program: to help understand what is going on in these early galaxies.” The survey’s unprecedented scale matters because individual massive stars in galaxies beyond the Milky Way are extraordinarily faint targets. Each star required up to 35 hours of precious Hubble observing time, making the construction of a statistically meaningful sample an expensive and painstaking undertaking that previous efforts had never achieved.

The scientific case for studying these stars rests on their outsized influence. Massive stars, defined as those with masses more than ten times greater than the sun, are rare but powerful engines of galactic change. They burn hot, bright and fast, flood their surroundings with intense radiation, shed material through stellar winds, and ultimately die as supernova explosions that deposit enormous amounts of energy and chemical enrichment into the surrounding gas. “They govern the evolution of their host galaxies by heating and essentially regulating the gas that’s then available to cool and form into new stars,” Telford explained. In a young galaxy, this feedback helps determine how efficiently the galaxy converts its gas reservoir into new generations of stars.

The stars at the center of the survey belong to a particularly consequential class. O-type stars are among the biggest and brightest stars in the universe, and they live relatively short lives by stellar standards. Near the end of their lifetimes, the most massive of them evolve into Wolf-Rayet stars, which release huge quantities of mass into space through powerful stellar winds that strip away their outer layers and expose their hot inner interiors. Understanding how these winds behave at low metallicity is therefore essential for modeling how the first generations of massive stars enriched the cosmos and sculpted the environments in which later stars formed.

The physics of stellar winds is intimately tied to metallicity. Metal ions within a star’s atmosphere couple the outgoing radiation to the surrounding material, effectively allowing light to push gas off the stellar surface. Astronomers have long expected that stars born with fewer heavy elements should drive weaker winds and lose less mass over their lifetimes. The TEMPOS observations confirmed the expected overall trend: as metallicity decreases, the maximum speed of the stellar winds decreases as well. But the data also delivered a surprise. At the lowest metallicities, in stars with metallicity below about ten percent of the sun’s, the wind speeds declined much more sharply than extrapolations from higher-metallicity trends would predict.

“There’s sort of a smooth trend and then suddenly for lowest-metallicity stars, the wind speed really drops off,” Telford said. “I was so excited to find that fun surprise in the data.” The discovery carries significant implications. If extremely metal-poor stars lose less mass through weaker winds, they retain more of their original mass as they age, which alters how they evolve, how they die, and how much energy and material they inject into their host galaxies. Because massive stars regulate the gas around them, changes in their mass-loss behavior could cascade outward, affecting star formation rates, gas temperatures and the ionizing radiation output that shapes a galaxy’s observable signature in the early universe.

Beyond wind speeds, the survey probed the chemistry of stellar atmospheres in a way no previous study had managed. Iron may be the single most important element in massive star physics: it plays a key role in launching stellar winds, determining how a star evolves throughout its lifetime, and triggering the supernova explosions that end massive stars’ lives. Yet iron abundance is notoriously difficult to measure in metal-poor environments. Instead, astronomers often use oxygen in a galaxy’s gas as a proxy for overall metallicity, because oxygen ions produce bright, easily observed emission lines when illuminated by massive stars. The convenience comes with an assumption—that iron and oxygen abundances track each other perfectly—which is not guaranteed to hold.

To test that assumption, the TEMPOS team measured the strengths of hard-to-detect iron absorption features in the ultraviolet spectra, assessing how much light the iron removed from what would otherwise be a flat level of ultraviolet emission. The results showed that massive stars in more oxygen-rich galaxies tend to have much stronger iron absorption in their UV spectra than stars in oxygen-poor galaxies, and the variation in absorption strengths across the sample suggests that these metal-poor stars span a wide range of iron abundances. “This is the first time we’ve had the statistical power to see that trend across a large sample of stars in six galaxies, all with different chemical compositions,” Telford said. “TEMPOS gives us the foundation for determining how massive-star physics changes as iron abundance changes in the very low-metallicity regime.”

The work marks a decisive break from a long-standing bottleneck in the field. Telford had previously modeled three of the stars in the TEMPOS sample in detail, but such small numbers could never reveal population-level trends. “With only three, you don’t see these trends,” she said. “We’ve always just been stuck in this low number statistics regime, so this is our very best attempt to build a big enough sample to do something more useful.” The researchers are now combining the Hubble ultraviolet spectra with visible-light observations from the Keck Observatory in Hawaii, a pairing that will allow them to model the stars in greater detail and measure properties such as chemical abundances and wind-driven mass-loss rates. Meanwhile, the science-ready ultraviolet spectra will be made publicly available through the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes, giving the broader research community a resource for pursuing additional questions about massive stars and their role in galaxy evolution. As Webb continues to deliver puzzling portraits of the universe’s first galaxies, TEMPOS offers astronomers the stellar physics they will need to finally interpret what they are seeing.

Subject of Research: Ultraviolet spectroscopy of extremely metal-poor massive stars to model stellar winds and early galaxy evolution

Article Title: Galaxies in the early universe are weird. These stars may explain why

Article References: Galaxies in the early universe are weird. These stars may explain why. (n.d.). Original publication

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: Not provided

Keywords: massive stars, stellar winds, metallicity, early galaxies, Hubble Space Telescope, James Webb Space Telescope, O-type stars, Wolf-Rayet stars, dwarf galaxies, iron abundance, supernovae, galaxy evolution