Employing state-of-the-art computational simulation models, the researchers integrated complex ecological variables such as climate fluctuations, large herbivore populations, natural wildfires, and human activities to unravel the drivers behind vegetation patterns during two pivotal warm periods: the Last Interglacial (approximately 125,000 to 116,000 years ago) and the Early Holocene (12,000 to 8,000 years ago). By juxtaposing simulation outputs with extensive pollen records spanning these epochs, the team deciphered the relative contributions of natural and anthropogenic forces in sculpting Europe’s ancient landscapes.

The analysis reveals that neither climate variability nor the presence of megafauna alone adequately explains the floral compositions observed in fossilized pollen data. Instead, incorporating human influences—specifically Neanderthal fire use and hunting pressure in the Last Interglacial, and Mesolithic hunter-gatherer activity in the Early Holocene—produces simulations that align much more closely with paleoecological evidence. This finding profoundly challenges the long-held assumption that pre-agricultural Europe existed as a pristine wilderness untouched by human hands.

Neanderthals, who roamed Europe during the Last Interglacial, were not passive inhabitants but engaged in fire management and preyed upon gigantic herbivores. Some prey, such as the straight-tusked elephant weighing up to 13 tonnes, illustrate the Neanderthals’ capacity to significantly disturb animal populations. Their hunting led to reduced grazing pressure, indirectly fostering denser vegetation as fewer herbivores consumed young plants and saplings. However, due to relatively low human numbers, this ecological impact remained moderate and did not eradicate the megafauna or their ecological roles.

In contrast, the Early Holocene witnessed Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of Homo sapiens exerting a far more marked influence on plant distribution and landscape openness. Simulation results estimate that humans shaped nearly half—around 47%—of plant community distributions during this period. Their fire regimes, combined with effective hunting strategies, diminished the abundance and diversity of large grazers, promoting shifts in vegetation patterns at a continental scale. This dual mechanism demonstrates early Homo sapiens as pivotal engineers, proactively transforming ecosystems millennia before the advent of agriculture.

Underpinning this breakthrough is an innovative interdisciplinary approach combining ecology, paleoecology, archaeology, and advanced artificial intelligence algorithms. Specialist knowledge of pollen, or palynology, furnished critical empirical benchmarks, while computational models allowed researchers to iterate and optimize scenarios efficiently. This use of AI-driven optimization algorithms in ecological simulation marks a cutting-edge methodological leap, enabling robust inference about prehistoric human-environment interactions that were previously speculative.

The implications of these findings extend beyond ecological history. They demand reconsideration of the “natural” baseline landscapes often cited as reference points in conservation biology and rewilding efforts across Europe. Recognizing that early humans co-created ecosystems foregrounds a more dynamic view of human agency within nature and encourages nuanced strategies that account for long-standing anthropogenic influences instead of aspiring toward a hypothetical untouched wilderness.

The study also highlights profound differences across epochs. While Neanderthals shaped environments to a measurable extent, Mesolithic hunter-gatherers’ impacts were both quantitatively and qualitatively greater, reflecting demographic expansions and cultural advancements in fire use and hunting technologies. Moreover, the disappearance of megafauna in the Holocene aligns with intensified human pressure, underscoring Homo sapiens’ unprecedented role in restructuring ecosystems globally.

While this research illuminates prehistoric human ecological impacts in Europe, knowledge gaps linger, especially regarding early hominin effects across different continents and time periods. The authors emphasize potential future studies employing similar computer simulations to examine North and South America and Australia, regions unpopulated by archaic hominins before Homo sapiens. Such comparisons may reveal unique trajectories of landscape transformation influenced solely by anatomically modern humans.

Local-scale studies remain indispensable complements to continental models. High-resolution archaeological and paleoecological investigations can elucidate the nuanced spatial and temporal variability of human-environment interactions, refining the broader patterns revealed by simulations. This synergy between macro-modeling and detailed empirical research promises richer insights into humanity’s deep ecological history.

In sum, this pioneering work redefines prehistoric hunter-gatherers from passive consumers of resources to active, large-scale ecosystem engineers. Both Neanderthals and Mesolithic Homo sapiens significantly shaped Europe’s vegetation thousands of years before the Neolithic revolution introduced farming. By integrating cutting-edge computational modeling with multidisciplinary data, the study unveils a more intricate narrative of human ecological legacy—one that challenges stereotypes and enriches our understanding of nature’s co-evolution with humankind.

Subject of Research:
Ecological impact of prehistoric hunter-gatherers on European vegetation during the Last Interglacial and Early Holocene periods.

Article Title:
On the ecological impact of prehistoric hunter-gatherers in Europe: Early Holocene (Mesolithic) and Last Interglacial (Neanderthal) foragers compared

News Publication Date:
22-Oct-2025

Web References:
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0328218

References:
Published article in PLOS One, 22 October 2025.

Keywords:
Prehistoric human impact, Neanderthals, Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, European vegetation, ecological simulation, pollen analysis, megafauna, fire ecology, landscape transformation, computational modeling, interdisciplinary research

The Maltese archipelago, which had almost attained its present geographical configuration by this time, lies at a minimum distance of about 85 kilometers across open sea from Sicily. While this straight-line measure presents a formidable challenge today, ancient seafarers would have navigated far more demanding routes influenced by prevailing winds, shifting sea surface currents, and night-time wayfinding using celestial landmarks. Estimates suggest that actual distances traversed could have been closer to 100 kilometers or more, a breathtaking feat for Early Holocene hunter-gatherers reliant on dugout canoes propelled solely by human power.

Such crossings would have been fraught with difficulty. Experimental voyages with Neolithic dugout canoe replicas from La Marmotta, Italy, show sustained speeds around 4 kilometers per hour, implying a sea journey requiring full use of daylight and extended travel into darkness to complete. Moreover, currents in the Malta Channel, predominantly southeasterly during summer months, potentially reaching speeds up to 2 knots, would have significantly prolonged and complicated these outward expeditions. Historical accounts underline that ancient sail-powered vessels often opted to embark from ports on Sicily’s Gulf of Gela rather than the shortest Maltese axis, attesting to the strategic maritime adaptations required to negotiate these difficult waters.

This emerging picture shatters long-held assumptions that dire Mediterranean seafaring conditions limited pre-Neolithic maritime range. Instead, the evidence positions these hunter-gatherers as sophisticated navigators capable of calculated, long-distance sea crossings predating known sailing technology by millennia. Such journeys represent some of the longest open-sea voyages in the region’s prehistory, revealing an unappreciated chapter of human innovation and mobility in the Early Holocene epoch.

The motivations behind these daring voyages remain a subject of debate. Climatic amelioration following the last glacial period likely enhanced seasonal resource availability on Malta, which may have incentivized periodic hunter-gatherer movement across the seas. Alternatively, the travel could reflect complex social dynamics, including demographic pressures or evolving interaction spheres catalyzed by the transitioning landscapes of Late Mesolithic Mediterranean societies.

Further, the Maltese Mesolithic story integrates into a broader tapestry of behavioral and demographic shifts characterizing the terminal hunter-gatherer era across the Mediterranean basin. These insights challenge prevailing dichotomies that portray islands as pristine wildernesses before Neolithic colonization. Instead, they reveal ecosystems shaped by human agency, replete with cultural and ecological footprints extending back centuries prior to agriculture’s arrival.

Of particular note is the potential for these early maritime connections to bridge continents, hinting at interactions between contemporaneous Mesolithic groups in Europe and the Epipaleolithic cultures of North Africa. Studies have highlighted technological affinities in lithic industries along both shores of the Mediterranean, suggesting a shared adaptive repertoire fostering seafaring ventures. The cluster of islands and indented mainland coastlines in the south-central Mediterranean and eastern Maghreb region emerges as a critical nexus for pioneering maritime activity during this period.

These discoveries compel a reevaluation of the capabilities and strategies employed by the last hunter-gatherers in the Mediterranean. Their ability to consistently undertake and survive substantial sea journeys widens perspectives on prehistoric human adaptability, navigation skills, and social organization. It underscores that the Neolithic transition unfolded within a complex mosaic of human populations embedded in maritime landscapes, rather than a sudden arrival into untouched territories.

Cumulatively, the findings underscore the ingenuity, resilience, and maritime sophistication of Mesolithic societies, whose endeavors laid crucial groundwork for subsequent waves of seafaring innovation including the eventual advent of sailing vessels. More than just physical migration, these voyages symbolize early human engagement with open seas as dynamic arenas of exploration, resource procurement, and cultural exchange.

By bringing to light this remarkable epoch of prehistoric seafaring, archaeologists illuminate uncharted dimensions of human history in the Mediterranean. The extended timelines of maritime connectivity they reveal not only deepen our understanding of hunter-gatherer lifeways but also enrich narratives of human movement, interaction, and adaptation across some of the world’s most challenging marine environments.

As research continues, the story of Mesolithic Malta and its seaborne voyagers promises to refine broader models of maritime prehistory, highlighting how ancient hunter-gatherers shaped, and were shaped by, the insular and marine landscapes at the heart of the Mediterranean. Their journeys compel us to reconsider the ingenuity of early humans who, long before the dawn of agriculture, embraced the sea to connect distant lands and cultures.

Subject of Research: Mesolithic maritime journeys and hunter-gatherer sea crossings in the central Mediterranean

Article Title: Hunter-gatherer sea voyages extended to remotest Mediterranean islands

Article References:
Scerri, E.M.L., Blinkhorn, J., Groucutt, H.S. et al. Hunter-gatherer sea voyages extended to remotest Mediterranean islands. Nature (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08780-y

Image Credits: AI Generated