Liver abscess is a severe suppurative infection in which pockets of pus and necrotic debris accumulate within hepatic tissue. The core pathological problem, the authors note, is not simply the presence of bacteria but the failure to promptly clear the large amounts of dead cells and pathogen fragments left behind at the infection site. That debris sustains an excessive and persistent inflammatory response, worsening local tissue damage and eroding clinical prognosis. Left unchecked, the process can progress to peritonitis and sepsis, causing irreversible and potentially fatal injury. Current standard treatments, antibiotics and percutaneous drainage, are effective at eliminating pathogens and managing the abscess cavity, but they do little to strengthen the body’s intrinsic capacity to calm inflammation, and some patients respond poorly, particularly when initial treatment is delayed.

At the center of the new work is efferocytosis, the process by which macrophages recognize, engulf, and digest apoptotic and necrotic cells. Efferocytosis is far more than housekeeping: as macrophages consume cellular corpses, they are pushed toward an anti-inflammatory and reparative phenotype, releasing mediators that actively resolve inflammation and initiate tissue reconstruction. Under the high-burden infectious stress of a liver abscess, however, this scavenging function is often suppressed or impaired, creating a vicious cycle in which necrotic debris accumulates, inflammation persists, and tissue damage compounds. Enhancing efferocytosis, the researchers argue, is therefore a key scientific challenge for promoting genuine healing of abscessed liver lesions rather than merely containing them.

To find a lever for that enhancement, the team looked to Nrf2, a central transcription factor in cellular anti-inflammatory defense that is known to maintain macrophage functional homeostasis and regulate phagocytosis-related genes. The upstream mechanisms controlling Nrf2 expression in liver abscess had not been elucidated. The investigators focused on m6A, the most abundant internal chemical modification of eukaryotic mRNA, which is catalyzed by methyltransferases such as METTL3 and dynamically regulates target genes by influencing mRNA stability, splicing, nuclear export, and translation efficiency. Whether METTL3-mediated m6A methylation of Nrf2 mRNA could serve as a regulatory node for macrophage efferocytosis under infectious stress was the central question of the study.

The experimental design combined a mouse model with cell culture rescue experiments. Forty male SPF-grade C57BL/6J mice were randomly assigned to control, bacterial liver abscess model, abscess plus control vector, and abscess plus METTL3 overexpression groups. After receiving adeno-associated virus vectors via tail vein injection four weeks before modeling, the animals underwent intrahepatic injection of Klebsiella pneumoniae, the leading clinical cause of liver abscess, accounting for more than half of isolates. All live-pathogen procedures were conducted under Biosafety Level 2 conditions. The model was validated by significant weight loss, pathological liver damage, and elevated serum inflammatory cytokines, while fluorescence imaging confirmed successful hepatic delivery of the vectors.

The gross and microscopic results were striking. Livers from untreated abscess mice appeared dark red with multiple firm, whitish round protrusions of one to two millimeters along the lobular margins, occasionally coalescing into larger lesions, together with regional yellowish abscesses and histological evidence of hepatocyte necrosis, inflammatory infiltration, and fibroblast proliferation. In mice overexpressing METTL3, the focal protrusions were noticeably fewer and hepatic tissue damage was significantly attenuated. Serum analysis reinforced the picture: overexpression lowered the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α while raising the anti-inflammatory, pro-resolution mediators IL-10 and TGF-β. The authors interpret this bidirectional shift as evidence that METTL3 redirected the inflammatory milieu toward resolution and repair rather than inducing nonspecific immunosuppression.

Molecular profiling revealed the mechanism underneath. METTL3 overexpression increased m6A enrichment on Nrf2 mRNA, as measured by methylated RNA immunoprecipitation followed by quantitative PCR, and further activated the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling axis, elevating Nrf2 and HO-1 protein levels while suppressing the negative regulator Keap-1. Downstream, the expression of the TAM receptor family, MerTK, Tyro3, and AXL, rose significantly in the livers of abscess mice and climbed higher still with METTL3 overexpression. These receptors form the molecular machinery of efferocytosis: MerTK directly drives clearance of apoptotic and necrotic cells and promotes reparative macrophage polarization, while AXL and Tyro3 fine-tune immune homeostasis. Immunofluorescence co-localization showed that F4/80-positive hepatic macrophages co-expressing MerTK and Nrf2 increased in the abscess model and increased further with METTL3, linking Nrf2 activation spatially to enhanced efferocytic capacity.

Causality was established in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages using a four-group design crossing METTL3 overexpression with Nrf2-targeting siRNA. METTL3 overexpression markedly increased mRNA and protein levels of all three TAM receptors and shifted the macrophage phenotype, reducing the proportion of CD86-positive pro-inflammatory cells and increasing CD206-positive anti-inflammatory, pro-repair cells. Nrf2 knockdown reversed every one of these effects, and two-way ANOVA confirmed significant interactions between the two manipulations for MerTK, Tyro3, and AXL expression as well as for polarization markers. The rescue experiments establish Nrf2 as the key downstream mediator through which METTL3 promotes an anti-inflammatory, pro-efferocytic macrophage state, consistent with prior evidence that Nrf2/HO-1 signaling regulates MerTK expression and that Nrf2 deficiency impairs apoptotic-cell clearance.

The study situates itself within a growing literature showing that METTL3’s role is context-dependent. It promotes post-infarction inflammation after myocardial infarction, exacerbates renal tubular inflammation and inflammatory bowel disease, yet its knockdown worsens neuroinflammation in hyperuricemic mice. In the abscess model, endogenous METTL3 rose alongside inflammatory cytokines, suggesting it may act as a compensatory protector early in disease, and its deliberate overexpression exerted therapeutic anti-inflammatory effects. The authors are candid about limitations: the TBG-driven AAV induced hepatic rather than macrophage-specific overexpression, rescue experiments used a macrophage cell line rather than primary Kupffer cells, direct apoptotic-cell engulfment assays and Nrf2 promoter-binding experiments were not performed, and the work covered a single bacterial strain and one terminal time point. Future studies with macrophage-specific genetic models, ChIP-qPCR, and m6A site mapping are planned. Even so, the METTL3/Nrf2 axis now stands as a compelling candidate target for therapies that would help patients resolve liver abscess inflammation from within, complementing antibiotics and drainage rather than replacing them.

Subject of Research: METTL3-mediated m6A methylation of Nrf2 mRNA regulating macrophage efferocytosis in bacterial liver abscess

Article Title: METTL3 Alleviates Liver Abscess by Enhancing Macrophage Efferocytosis via m6A Methylation of Nrf2 mRNA

Article References: Wang, G., Luo, D., Pang, Y., Gao, C., Jin, D., & Wang, Q. (2026). METTL3 Alleviates Liver Abscess by Enhancing Macrophage Efferocytosis via m 6 A Methylation of Nrf2 mRNA. Immunity, Inflammation and Disease, 14(10), Article e70534. https://doi.org/10.1002/iid3.70534

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1002/iid3.70534

Keywords: METTL3, m6A methylation, Nrf2, efferocytosis, macrophages, liver abscess, Klebsiella pneumoniae, TAM receptors, MerTK, inflammation resolution, epitranscriptomics, HO-1

The research, led by Hao Pan, Jiefeng Huang, Haoze Zhu, Xiaokun Li, and Cailong Liu, builds on a conceptual shift that has been gathering momentum in regenerative medicine. Bone repair is increasingly understood not as a purely osteogenic event but as an immunoregenerative one. Successful healing requires the temporally orchestrated resolution of inflammation, recruitment and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells, formation of vascular networks, deposition of extracellular matrix, and eventual mineral maturation. At the center of this cascade sit macrophages—the immune cells that flood any injury site within hours. Early on, pro-inflammatory macrophages clear debris and defend against pathogens, but if that inflammatory state persists, it amplifies cytokine release, kills off osteoprogenitors, suppresses angiogenesis, and stalls bone bridging. When macrophages transition in time toward a reparative, so-called M2 phenotype, they instead secrete signals that resolve inflammation, remodel matrix, stabilize vessels, and drive osteogenic differentiation.

Previous attempts to exploit this plasticity have relied on small molecules, inorganic ions, or cytokines embedded in scaffolds. Such agents diffuse rapidly, act through narrow signaling channels, and cannot reproduce the rich paracrine language that reparative immune cells actually speak. The new work turns instead to small extracellular vesicles, or sEVs—nanoscale, membrane-bound packets that cells use to ship proteins, lipids, mRNAs, and microRNAs to one another. Because their cargo reflects the physiological state of the parent cell, sEVs can regulate recipient cells through multiple targets and pathways simultaneously. Macrophage-derived vesicles are especially attractive: their composition and function track the macrophage’s polarization status, and M2 macrophage exosomes have already been shown to restore osteoimmune balance and accelerate fracture healing, even under diabetic conditions where inflammatory dysregulation cripples bone repair.

Native sEVs, however, suffer from well-known weaknesses: modest yields, heterogeneous bioactivity, inefficient uptake by target cells, and rapid clearance after injection. The team’s solution was a two-step engineering scheme. First, they polarized RAW264.7 murine macrophages with interleukin-4 to generate reparative M2-like cells, confirmed by upregulation of the M2 markers Mrc1 and Arg1, elevated CD206 expression, and increased secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and TGF-β. Then they subjected these cells to 24 hours of hypoxic preconditioning in a sealed low-oxygen system, mimicking the low oxygen tension characteristic of injury niches. Western blotting confirmed accumulation of HIF-1α, the master hypoxia-responsive transcription factor, verifying that the donor cells had mounted a hypoxia program before releasing their vesicles.

The hypoxic treatment produced a striking and therapeutically useful side effect: apoptotic mimicry. Annexin V staining revealed a time-dependent externalization of phosphatidylserine on the donor macrophages, reaching 50.6 percent Annexin V-positive, membrane-intact cells at 24 hours. Phosphatidylserine is the classic eat-me lipid that dying cells display to trigger efferocytosis—the engulfment of apoptotic material—and, crucially, this recognition is not merely a cleanup mechanism. PS-mediated uptake actively drives anti-inflammatory, pro-resolving responses in phagocytes. Confocal imaging confirmed that the purified vesicles, dubbed M2-HP-Apo-sEVs, retained this PS-enriched membrane. Transmission electron microscopy showed typical rounded, cup-shaped nanovesicles of roughly 148 to 151 nanometers, and marker analysis confirmed enrichment of the EV proteins CD81 and ALIX with no detectable calnexin contamination. Notably, hypoxia also boosted vesicle yield per donor cell—without degrading purity, as shown by a stable particle-to-protein ratio—likely because hypoxic signaling accelerates endosomal trafficking and multivesicular body turnover.

Functionally, the engineered vesicles outperformed their normoxic counterparts at every checkpoint. In flow-cytometric uptake assays, macrophages internalized M2-HP-Apo-sEVs far more readily than standard M2-sEVs, an advantage the team traced in part to the MerTK receptor, a phosphatidylserine-binding efferocytic receptor. When the researchers partially silenced Mertk with siRNA, the uptake advantage vanished and the two vesicle types became indistinguishable in their immunomodulatory effects—strong evidence that PS-MerTK recognition underlies the enhanced activity, though the authors caution that incomplete knockdown and the absence of direct PS-blocking experiments mean other pathways likely contribute. In lipopolysaccharide-stimulated inflammatory macrophages, M2-HP-Apo-sEVs suppressed the pro-inflammatory genes Il1b and Nos2 more strongly than ordinary M2-sEVs while boosting Arg1 and Mrc1, shifting secreted cytokines away from IL-6 and IL-1β and toward IL-10 and TGF-β, and flipping surface marker expression from CD86 toward CD206. In short, the vesicles did not merely dampen inflammation—they actively converted inflammatory macrophages into a pro-resolving, tissue-repairing state.

The benefits rippled outward to the two other cell lineages that bone regeneration depends on. In bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, M2-HP-Apo-sEVs produced the strongest alkaline phosphatase activity at day seven of osteogenic induction and the most abundant mineralized nodule formation by day fourteen, alongside coordinated upregulation of Alpl, Runx2, Opn, Ocn, and Bmp2 and intensified BMP2 protein staining. In human umbilical vein endothelial cells, the vesicles drove proliferation in EdU assays, accelerated migration in Transwell chambers, and produced denser, more interconnected capillary-like networks with significantly more nodes, junctions, and branches. This triple action—immune resolution, osteogenesis, and angiogenesis—reflects the emerging principle of osteo–immuno–angiogenic coupling, in which macrophages, stem cells, and vessels reinforce one another rather than operating as isolated modules.

To keep the vesicles where they are needed, the team embedded them in gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA), a photocrosslinkable hydrogel that combines cell-adhesive motifs with tunable degradation. Scanning electron microscopy showed that vesicle loading did not disrupt the hydrogel’s interconnected porous architecture, and release experiments in collagenase-containing medium demonstrated progressive, sustained vesicle liberation over seven days, governed by enzymatic degradation of the matrix. The construct was then tested in a demanding model: a five-millimeter critical-sized calvarial defect in mice, filled in situ with photocrosslinked hydrogel. Twelve weeks later, micro-computed tomography revealed minimal spontaneous healing in the GelMA-only group, substantial improvement with ordinary M2-sEVs, and the most extensive defect filling and radiographic bridging with the hypoxia-programmed vesicles. Quantitative analysis confirmed significantly better bone volume fraction, mineral density, trabecular number, and trabecular thickness, with reduced trabecular separation.

Tissue-level analyses told a coherent mechanistic story. Immunofluorescence of regenerated calvarial tissue showed reduced CD86 and increased CD206, indicating that the macrophage phenotype shift survived implantation; BMP2 and the endothelial marker CD31 were both elevated, evidencing coupled osteogenesis and vascularization; and H&E plus Masson’s trichrome staining revealed more continuous tissue bridging and richer collagen matrix in the M2-HP-Apo-sEV group. Gene expression in the defect tissue mirrored the in vitro findings, with inflammatory transcripts down and reparative, angiogenic, and osteogenic transcripts up. Examination of heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney showed no overt histopathological abnormalities at the twelve-week endpoint, offering preliminary reassurance on biocompatibility.

The authors are candid about limitations: the in vivo evidence rests on a single murine model at a single time point; the vesicles came from a cell line rather than primary human macrophages; the oxygen level during preconditioning was not continuously controlled; ultracentrifugation cannot fully resolve apoptosis-associated vesicle subpopulations; and the specific cargo—protein, lipid, or RNA—responsible for the effects remains unidentified. Clinical translation will also demand GMP-compatible manufacturing, closed processing systems, and rigorous lot-release criteria. Even so, the study delivers a compelling proof of concept: by programming donor macrophages with hypoxia, borrowing the apoptotic eat-me signal to hijack the immune system’s own resolution machinery, and parking the resulting nanovesicles in a degradable hydrogel, the researchers have assembled a cell-free platform that teaches the wound to heal itself. If the approach generalizes to load-bearing defects and larger animals, it could reshape how surgeons think about the impossible hole in the bone—not as a gap to be filled, but as an immune conversation waiting to be redirected.

Subject of Research: Hypoxia-programmed apoptotic-mimetic M2 macrophage-derived small extracellular vesicles delivered in GelMA hydrogels for immunoregenerative repair of critical-sized bone defects

Article Title: Hypoxia-programmed apoptotic-mimetic M2 macrophage-derived small extracellular vesicles for hydrogel-mediated immunoregenerative bone repair

Article References: Pan, H., Huang, J., Zhu, H., Chen, L., Huang, S., Huang, Y., Zhu, X., Li, X., & Liu, C. (2026). Hypoxia-programmed apoptotic-mimetic M2 macrophage-derived small extracellular vesicles for hydrogel-mediated immunoregenerative bone repair. Materials Today Bio, 41, Article 103696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2026.103696

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2026.103696

Keywords: extracellular vesicles, macrophages, M2 polarization, hypoxia preconditioning, phosphatidylserine, efferocytosis, MerTK, GelMA hydrogel, bone regeneration, osteogenesis, angiogenesis, calvarial defect