Parental burnout differs fundamentally from work-related burnout, despite sharing some surface symptoms. Unlike employment, parenting offers no clock-out boundary, no weekend, and no formal resignation procedure. The role is continuous, ever-present, and often takes precedence over every other responsibility in adult life. Occupational scientists have noted that the parenting role encompasses more than one hundred distinct occupations, spanning the fulfilment of children’s fundamental, developmental and social needs. When these overlapping demands are frequently interrupted and never fully discharged, perceived health suffers. Chronic stress within the parental role can accumulate until it produces the four dimensions that define parental burnout: exhaustion in one’s parental role, a contrast with one’s previous parental self, feelings of being fed up with the parental role, and emotional distancing from one’s children.

The Parental Burnout Assessment, originally developed by Roskam and colleagues on the basis of testimonies from burned-out parents, measures these dimensions through 23 items rated on a seven-point Likert scale from never to every day, yielding a maximum score of 138 points. Established cut-off scores allow clinicians to distinguish risk from diagnosis: a score of 53 or higher indicates a parent at risk, while 86 or above suggests burnout. The instrument’s four-factor structure has been validated in numerous countries and translated into languages including Finnish, Swedish, Polish and Chinese. The Icelandic team followed a rigorous cross-cultural adaptation protocol, obtaining permission from the original authors, conducting independent forward translations by two occupational therapists and an expert with more than two decades of field experience, reconciling the drafts, back-translating into English with native speakers, and consulting the National Queer Organisation of Iceland to ensure culturally sensitive terminology.

The translation process also incorporated cognitive interviews with five parents deliberately selected to represent diverse family structures, including mothers and fathers, single-parent households, families with one to four children of varying ages, different educational levels, and both working and non-working parents. Because all participants comprehended the items similarly, no additional interviews were required. The final Icelandic version preserved all 23 items in their original order. Data collection then proceeded through two convenience sampling channels: paediatric nurses at ten child health centres across Iceland distributed study information with a QR code for a web-based questionnaire, and the study was promoted through Icelandic social media groups. Data were gathered over four weeks in March and April 2023, and the study received approval from the National Bioethics Committee of Iceland.

After applying inclusion criteria requiring at least one child living at home and residence in Iceland, the final analytical sample comprised 1,063 parents, of whom 88.9 percent were mothers. Most participants were married or cohabiting, nearly half lived in the capital region, and more than two-thirds held university degrees. The mean age was 35.3 years for women and 37.3 years for men. The researchers assessed structural validity using confirmatory factor analysis with a diagonally weighted least squares estimator, chosen because tests of multivariate skewness and kurtosis indicated that normality could not be assumed. They compared a one-factor model, a four-factor model and a second-order model in which an overall burnout factor explains the relationships among the four subscales.

The results provided strong support for the original four-factor structure. The comparative fit index and Tucker-Lewis index exceeded 0.95 for both the four-factor and second-order models, and post-hoc modification of residual covariances brought the root mean square error of approximation down to 0.059 and the standardised root mean square residual to 0.044. Standardised factor loadings for the first-order model ranged between 0.7 and 0.9, while second-order loadings reached between 0.90 and 0.96, all significant at the 0.001 level. Internal consistency was excellent, with Cronbach’s alpha reaching 0.96 for the total scale and values above 0.9 for the exhaustion and contrast subscales, though the three-item distancing subscale showed the lowest reliability. One item concerning lost direction in the parental role showed cross-loadings with the exhaustion dimension, which the authors attribute to nuances in translation and suggest could be improved with slight rephrasing.

Prevalence estimates from the Icelandic sample were striking. Using the recommended cut-offs, 10.1 percent of parents scored between 53 and 85 points, placing them at risk of parental burnout, while 3.8 percent scored 86 or higher, meeting the threshold for burnout. This overall rate is lower than figures reported in some other European countries such as Finland and Poland. Notably, the gap between mothers and fathers was smaller than in much of the previous international literature, with burnout rates of 3.6 percent among mothers and 2.7 percent among fathers. The researchers suggest this may reflect Iceland’s progressive family policies, which promote active father involvement in early childcare through generous parental leave arrangements. Older parents also exhibited lower burnout levels, consistent with the idea that accumulated life experience fosters a more balanced perspective on parenting challenges.

The study went beyond validation to explore which factors predict burnout, drawing on the Value and Meaning in Occupation model, a framework used in Scandinavian burnout rehabilitation that examines how personal factors, environment and the perceived value of daily activities shape occupational engagement. A hierarchical three-step regression analysis revealed that demographic variables alone explained only 1.6 percent of the variance in burnout scores. Adding the number of children at home and the presence of a child with special needs raised explained variance to 7.7 percent. The decisive contribution came from perceived support, personal causation and parental diagnosis, which together lifted the final model to 43.9 percent of explained variance. Personal causation, a core concept in occupational therapy referring to an individual’s sense of self-efficacy and perceived capacity, correlated strongly and positively with burnout, meaning that parents who doubted their own abilities scored substantially higher on the burnout measure.

The findings carry practical weight for clinical practice. Single parents, non-working parents receiving disability benefits or rehabilitation pensions, parents of children with special needs, and parents with diagnoses such as ADHD, ADD or autism all showed elevated burnout levels, while perceived support emerged as a clear protective factor. The authors argue that occupational therapists are uniquely positioned to help, because parental burnout rarely arises from a single cause but from a complex accumulation of occupational imbalances that compound over time. By assessing individual, task and environmental factors holistically, therapists can help parents reduce stressors, strengthen coping skills and rebuild their sense of capacity within the parenting role. The PBA-IS now enables early identification in Icelandic clinical settings, supporting interventions that reduce stress, promote mental health and enhance wellbeing for entire families. Future research, the team suggests, should pursue more diverse samples, validate a shorter five-item screening scale for use in child health services, and develop occupational therapy-specific instruments for measuring personal causation in parents.

Subject of Research: Cross-cultural translation and psychometric validation of the Parental Burnout Assessment for Icelandic parents

Article Title: Icelandic translation, adaptation and validation of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA-IS)

Article References: Pétursdóttir, H. S., Halapi, E., & Thordardottir, B. (2025). Icelandic translation, adaptation and validation of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA-IS). Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 32(1), Article 2453479. https://doi.org/10.1080/11038128.2025.2453479

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1080/11038128.2025.2453479

Keywords: parental burnout, Parental Burnout Assessment, psychometric validation, Iceland, occupational therapy, confirmatory factor analysis, personal causation, parental stress, cross-cultural adaptation, mental health, perceived support, Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy

The escalation of parental anxiety during the pandemic is a multifaceted phenomenon, driven by fears of viral contagion, economic instability, disruption of daily routines, and uncertainty regarding children’s educational progress. Anxiety, a psychological state characterized by excessive worry and apprehension, became prevalent among parents across various demographics. The research highlights that such anxiety was not uniform but varied in intensity, often correlating with factors such as socioeconomic status, prior mental health conditions, and access to social support networks. Quantitative analysis reveals that elevated anxiety levels were significantly associated with shifts in parenting behaviors, suggesting that emotional distress acted as a powerful determinant of how parents interacted with their children.

Parenting styles, broadly classified into authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved categories, manifested differently under the duress of the pandemic. Khomaeny and Kusumaputeri’s findings indicate a notable pivot from balanced, authoritative approaches towards more reactive or inconsistent parenting strategies. Authoritative parenting, characterized by warmth, responsiveness, and firm yet fair discipline, idealizes optimal child development. However, under pervasive anxiety, some parents displayed tendencies towards either authoritarian styles marked by strictness and high control or permissiveness characterized by indulgence and laxity. These alterations were not mere behavioral shifts but symptomatic of underlying psychological perturbations driven by fear and exhaustion.

From a neuropsychological perspective, the pandemic’s disruptive influence on parenting can be linked to alterations in stress-regulatory mechanisms in the brain. Heightened cortisol levels—commonly known as stress hormones—may impair executive functioning, thereby diminishing parents’ capacity for emotional regulation and patience. This biological undercurrent provides a mechanistic explanation for the observed increase in harsh disciplinary practices or inconsistent rule enforcement. Moreover, the protracted nature of the crisis amplified these effects, resulting in long-term implications for family dynamics and child developmental trajectories.

The intersection of parental anxiety and educational challenges further compounded the parenting landscape. With widespread closures of schools and daycare centers, parents assumed hybrid roles of caregiver, educator, and employee. This unprecedented triad of responsibilities significantly elevated cognitive and emotional burdens. Khomaeny and Kusumaputeri underscore how these compounded roles intensified stress, leading some parents to adopt either overly controlling behaviors to ensure academic progress or excessively lenient attitudes to avoid conflicts. The delicate balance between nurturing autonomy and enforcing discipline was thus jeopardized, influencing children’s psychological well-being and adaptability in uncertain times.

Digital technologies, while serving as vital tools for communication and education, also introduced new variables into parenting during the pandemic. Access to online learning and virtual social interaction represented double-edged swords. On one hand, these platforms mitigated isolation; on the other hand, extended screen time and reduced physical interaction posed challenges for parents striving to maintain healthy routines. The research discusses how parental anxiety sometimes translated into over-monitoring or permissiveness regarding technology use, reflecting attempts to control an unpredictable environment. These behaviors potentially set the stage for future conflicts and self-regulation issues in children.

Socioeconomic disparities emerged as critical factors influencing the degree of parental anxiety and associated parenting forms. Families with limited financial resources faced compounded stressors, such as food insecurity, job loss, and inadequate housing, all of which heightened anxiety and constrained parenting options. Khomaeny and Kusumaputeri’s study presents evidence that economic strain heightened authoritarian tendencies in parenting, possibly as a coping mechanism to assert stability in chaotic circumstances. Conversely, more affluent families, while not immune to anxiety, displayed more resilience and maintained authoritative parenting styles, suggesting that resource availability buffered against psychological distress.

The role of social support networks, including extended family, community organizations, and mental health services, was pivotal in moderating parental anxiety. The research outlines how isolation measures disrupted these support systems, leaving many parents without customary outlets for stress relief or assistance. In the absence of external support, parents reported feelings of helplessness, which further exacerbated anxiety and influenced parenting styles negatively. The findings advocate for policy interventions aimed at strengthening virtual and community-based support mechanisms to mitigate the psychological toll on parents during crisis events.

Culturally specific parenting norms also intersected with anxiety responses during the pandemic. Khomaeny and Kusumaputeri highlight that cultural values informed parents’ expectations and practices, thereby modulating how anxiety manifested in parenting behaviors. For instance, cultures emphasizing collectivism and interdependence may have experienced different stress patterns compared to highly individualistic societies. This cultural lens offers a nuanced understanding of the diversity in parenting adaptations under pandemic-induced stress and underscores the need for culturally sensitive mental health interventions.

Importantly, the psychological impact of parental anxiety extended beyond immediate parenting styles to affect child development outcomes. Elevated parental stress has been associated with increased risks of behavioral problems, emotional dysregulation, and academic difficulties in children. The research suggests a bidirectional relationship, where child behavioral challenges may reciprocally elevate parental anxiety, creating a feedback loop that challenges family cohesion. Interventions promoting parental mental health, therefore, have the potential to foster better child developmental trajectories by breaking this cycle.

Intervention strategies to address parental anxiety during pandemics combine psychological education, stress management techniques, and community support facilitation. Khomaeny and Kusumaputeri propose that empowering parents with coping skills—such as mindfulness, structured routines, and positive communication—can help restore balanced parenting approaches. Training parents to recognize their own anxiety symptoms and seek timely help is vital to maintaining healthy family environments in crisis periods. Additionally, telepsychology services and parent support hotlines have emerged as accessible means to provide professional guidance amid social distancing constraints.

Future research directions illuminated by this study involve longitudinal tracking of families post-pandemic to assess the enduring impact of anxiety-induced parenting changes. Understanding how temporary or chronic these shifts are will inform long-term policy and therapeutic practices. Moreover, dissecting the interplay of biological, psychological, social, and cultural variables offers fertile ground for developing personalized interventions. Insights gleaned from such research will be invaluable in preparing for potential future public health crises that disrupt family systems globally.

In summary, the COVID-19 pandemic imposed unprecedented stress on parents worldwide, triggering elevated anxiety that substantially influenced parenting styles and child well-being. Through rigorous analyses, Khomaeny and Kusumaputeri’s research elucidates how these psychological pressures altered parental behavior, often diminishing the efficacy of traditionally beneficial parenting approaches. The study underscores critical insights into the neuropsychological underpinnings, sociocultural variables, and systemic factors that govern parental adaptation under crisis. Such knowledge is indispensable for shaping responsive mental health frameworks that bolster families’ resilience during global emergencies.

The implications of these findings extend beyond the current pandemic, inviting a reevaluation of parenting support paradigms and mental health policies in times of widespread uncertainty. By recognizing the complex challenges faced by parents and enhancing targeted interventions, society can better safeguard the psychological welfare of families and promote healthier developmental environments for future generations. This research thus marks a pivotal contribution toward comprehending and mitigating the collateral psychological effects of large-scale crises on family dynamics.

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Subject of Research: Parental anxiety and variations in parenting styles during the COVID-19 pandemic

Article Title: Parental anxiety and form of parenting during the COVID-19 pandemic

Article References:

Khomaeny, E.F.F., Kusumaputeri, E.S. Parental anxiety and form of parenting during the COVID-19 pandemic.
ICEP 16, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40723-022-00103-2

Image Credits: AI Generated