This review reports Curiosity’s scientific results and operational status during mission years 9–12 on Mars, covering August 2020–August 2024.

Major scientific findings

• Organic molecules: SAM’s first thermochemolysis experiment detected more than 20 aromatic and cyclic organic compounds—including benzene, toluene, naphthalene derivatives, sulfur-bearing organics, and ester/carboxylic-acid-related compounds—in clay-rich rocks of Glen Torridon. These findings strengthen the evidence that ancient lake and lake-margin sediments preserved organic matter for billions of years.
• Clay-to-sulfate transition: Curiosity directly investigated the orbital clay-sulfate transition on Mount Sharp. The transition corresponds to a broad environmental change from predominantly lacustrine and river/shoreline settings to increasingly arid, aeolian environments. The shift toward aridity was not uniform: wet-dry cycles, fluctuating groundwater, and intermittent surface water continued.
• Mg sulfate-bearing unit: CheMin identified magnesium sulfate minerals, including the first detection on Mars of starkeyite—a polyhydrated Mg sulfate—and also detected kieserite, a monohydrated Mg sulfate. These minerals likely formed through brine concentration and later dehydration. The unit is dominated by wind-deposited sediments, although some intervals preserve evidence of shallow water and lakes.
• Ancient ice-free lake: Wave ripples in the Amapari Marker Band indicate that an ice-free lake existed during the early Hesperian period, despite the generally arid conditions recorded by surrounding strata.
• Carbonates and climate: Many sulfate-unit samples are enriched in siderite, an iron carbonate, at levels consistent with chemical sedimentation. This may represent a substantial portion of Mars’ previously “missing” carbonate and suggests atmospheric CO₂ sequestration into minerals.
• Gediz Vallis: The canyon and associated alluvial deposits record numerous later fluvial and debris-flow events, occurring after Mount Sharp’s older strata had been deposited, lithified, and eroded. Bright clasts in the canyon were identified as native elemental sulfur, the first such detection on Mars.
• Atmosphere and radiation: Curiosity continued long-term monitoring of dust, winds, clouds, atmospheric composition, and radiation. It observed high-altitude noctilucent and iridescent clouds and completed radiation measurements spanning an entire solar cycle, including the mission’s largest measured dose rate during a May 2024 solar particle event.

Mission performance

During years 9–12, Curiosity:

• Traveled 9.1 km and climbed approximately 450 m.
• Reached a total traverse distance of 32.4 km and elevation gain of about 850 m.
• Drilled and analyzed 15 samples, bringing the mission total to 48.
• Conducted 1,083 ChemCam target analyses and 605 APXS analyses.

Rover and instrument status

All ten scientific instruments continued to return valuable data, although with important limitations:

• ChemCam: Laser operations were restricted after degradation of its high-voltage subsystem.
• Left Mastcam: A filter wheel failure eliminated narrow-band multispectral imaging through that camera.
• DAN: Its active neutron generator failed, but passive neutron measurements remain available.
• SAM: One gas-chromatograph column became obstructed; another column is being used instead.
• CheMin: Remaining sample-cell capacity is limited because several cells are clogged, though procedural changes have extended their usability.
• The rover also continues to cope with wheel wear, degraded computer redundancy, aging brakes, and declining MMRTG power.

Future plans

The mission planned to investigate:

1. A regional “boxwork” ridge network thought to record ancient groundwater flow.
2. Higher portions of the Mg sulfate-bearing unit.
3. A major unconformity and overlying yardang-forming unit, potentially recording a significant climatic or depositional hiatus.

Overall, the review concludes that Curiosity remains scientifically productive and capable of addressing major questions about Mars’ ancient habitability, climate evolution, water history, organic preservation, and subsurface fluid activity despite substantial aging and resource constraints.

The present research was recently showcased at the EPSC–DPS2025 Joint Meeting in Helsinki, where two critical studies highlighted how natural processes could facilitate the delivery of organic-rich materials closer to the rover, thus potentially enriching its sample collection without necessitating long-distance travels. This revelation is significant, as the exploration of Mars is often characterized by treacherous terrain, complicating the rover’s missions. One study, led by Dr. Aleksandra Sokołowska from Brown University and Imperial College London, identified an impressive total of 258 rockfalls within the landing area of the Rosalind Franklin rover. The implications of this discovery are profound, offering an unprecedented opportunity for the rover to access previously unreachable specimens.

These rockfalls are not random occurrences; they are phenomena influenced by various geological forces. The study indicates that many of the detected rockfalls are situated on the steep slopes of craters and cliffs, regions that remain largely unexplored. The high-resolution imagery provided by NASA’s HiRISE camera aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) allowed researchers to meticulously catalog these geological events, revealing not only the presence of the rockfalls but also their trails, some stretching as far as 500 meters. The understanding of these formations is crucial as they may act as natural highways, bringing to light materials that have been buried beneath the surface and previously shielded from harsh Martian conditions.

In a parallel development, Ananya Srivastava from the University of Western Ontario presented a complementary study on the clay minerals inside the Oxia Planum, suggesting that these organic-rich clays might have originated from distant regions of Mars. This research posits that the clay deposits could have been transported to their current location through sequential floods that occurred over 3.5 billion years ago, a time when flowing water was undoubtedly more prevalent on the Martian landscape. The discovery of these clay layers, characterized by distinct compositional variations, offers a tantalizing glimpse into the planet’s ancient hydrological processes and climatic conditions.

The crux of the research lies in understanding the distribution and formation of these clay minerals. Srivastava’s investigations revealed a multi-layered structure of alternating clay compositions within exposed crater walls. The emphasis on layer thickness variation across different elevations indicates that the sedimentary processes that formed these clays were far from uniform, lending credence to the theory of episodic flooding. Such data not only aids in constructing a narrative of Mars’s climatic history but also hints at the potential habitability of the ancient environment, suggesting that organic molecules could have found refuge within these clay deposits.

As more rockfalls are identified, researchers believe there may be even more hidden treasures within the Martian surface. The semi-automated techniques employed by Sokołowska’s team have transformed the exploration process, integrating advanced deep-learning algorithms to pinpoint candidate rockfalls followed by rigorous human validation. This blend of technology and human expertise is likely to yield substantial finds in the near future, enhancing the probability that Rosalind Franklin will uncover materials that offer insights into Mars’s evolutionary timeline.

Safety considerations for the rover have also been discussed; although the chance of encountering rockfalls is low, the mission can strategically leverage these features to enrich its scientific return. Fresh rockfalls serve as a natural source of diverse samples, elevating the scientific importance of such geological phenomena. The pieces of rock dislodged from their places of rest have not only been protected from cosmic radiation but may also store remnants of the organic matter that thrived in the planet’s warmer, wetter history.

Meanwhile, studies of impact craters have illuminated additional aspects of Martian geology. The craters are instrumental in reshaping the landscape, acting as agents of mechanical weathering that create the conditions favorable for rockfalls. Although it was previously speculated that recent marsquakes or new impact sites might be responsible for triggering these rockfalls, the findings indicate no significant correlation. This is a pivotal point in understanding the stresses and processes shaping the Martian surface, ultimately steering future exploration strategies.

Furthermore, the implications of these discoveries stretch beyond mere scientific curiosity; they are central to humanity’s quest for understanding life beyond Earth. The clays in Oxia Planum are not mere geological artifacts; they are potential recorders of ancient life, holding clues to whether life ever existed on Mars. If the multiple layers of clays are indeed product of episodic water flows, they may represent diverse and varied conditions conducive to life. The profound implications of discovering organic molecules preserved in these scenarios could signal one of the most monumental moments in our exploration of extraterrestrial life.

Studying Mars is intrinsically linked to understanding Earth’s own history, as we seek to unravel the conditions that allow life to thrive. The Martian landscape acts as a time capsule, revealing not just the past of Mars but also drawing parallels with Earth’s environmental changes. As the Rosalind Franklin mission gears up, these findings provide a compelling rationale for continued investment in Mars exploration, reinforcing the notion that Mars may be the next frontier in our quest to find if we are truly alone in the cosmos.

Ultimately, the fruitful findings presented at EPSC–DPS2025 highlight a promising pathway for the Rosalind Franklin mission. The convergence of advanced imaging techniques and detailed geological studies underscores the synergy between technology and observation, propelling humanity closer to uncovering the mysteries of Mars. As the mission prepares for its launch, anticipation mounts for the potential revelations that await on the Martian surface, where every rock, shadow, and clay layer may contribute to unraveling the secrets locked within the Red Planet.

Subject of Research: Mars Exploration
Article Title: New Research Boosts Rosalind Franklin Mission’s Chance of Finding Life on Mars
News Publication Date: October 2023
Web References: NASA HiRISE
References: EPSC–DPS2025 Joint Meeting Proceedings
Image Credits: Aleksandra Sokołowska (Imperial College)/NASA/HiRISE/University of Arizona

Keywords

Mars, Rosalind Franklin Mission, Oxia Planum, organic molecules, clay minerals, geological processes, extraterrestrial life, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Martian climate, rockfalls, evolution of Mars, planetary science.

For decades, the search for organic molecules on Mars has been at the forefront of planetary science, driven by the quest to determine whether life ever existed beyond Earth. Although prior missions and studies have detected various organic compounds on Mars, ambiguity has persisted concerning their exact nature, origin, and the mechanisms that enable their preservation in the harsh Martian environment. The Jezero crater, an ancient delta-lake system believed to have once harbored water, provides a unique geological context where sedimentary processes could have concentrated and protected organic materials from degradation.

Using Raman spectroscopy, a sensitive analytical technique that identifies molecular vibrations characteristic of specific compounds, Perseverance has detected spectral features strongly suggestive of organic molecules spatially associated with sulfate minerals on the crater floor. However, interpretations of these signals have been challenging due to potential spectral interferences and the ambiguous origin of the detected organics. The recent study pushes these investigations further, reporting the detection of similar Raman features in the top layers of the Jezero fan deposit and, crucially, attributing them to PAHs based on rigorous comparison with laboratory spectra of terrestrial analogs.

PAHs are a class of complex organic molecules composed of fused aromatic rings, and they are considered key molecules in prebiotic chemistry because of their stability and abundance in the universe. Their detection on Mars is highly significant, as it could indicate endogenous chemical processes such as igneous activity or hydrothermal synthesis capable of generating these molecules independently of biological input. Alternatively, PAHs may originate from meteoritic infall or photochemical reactions in the atmosphere, yet the spatial coupling with sulfates suggests a geochemically mediated preservation pathway rather than mere surface contamination.

The team hypothesizes that these PAHs formed through igneous processes deep within Mars’ crust, subsequently ascending to the surface where sulfate minerals precipitated, encasing and protecting the organic molecules from oxidative destruction and intense radiation. Sulfates, which form in aqueous and acidic environments, have previously been implicated in the preservation of organic signatures on Earth and in Martian meteorites, underscoring their importance as a molecular archive. The intimate association between PAHs and sulfates in Jezero therefore not only informs us about Mars’ past environmental conditions but also enhances prospects for detecting preserved biosignatures in future sample returns.

What makes this discovery remarkable is how it connects disparate threads of Martian research. Prior studies at Gale crater conducted by Curiosity rover, as well as analyses of Martian meteorites, have hinted at organic compounds within sulfate-bearing matrices, yet none have offered as clear and direct a spectral fingerprint of PAHs as seen in Jezero. This consistency reinforces the idea that sulfate deposits on Mars function as reliable custodians of organic chemistry, even across diverse geological contexts and water-related depositional environments.

The methodological approach combines in situ Raman spectroscopy with a detailed laboratory spectral database, painstakingly built from both synthetic and natural samples mimicking Martian mineralogy and organic matter. By matching the rover’s spectral data to known PAH signatures, the researchers rule out alternative sources such as carbonate minerals or amorphous carbon, strengthening the confidence in their interpretation. This analytical rigor is crucial, considering that Mars’ surface is subjected to an array of confounding factors including dust, UV radiation, and oxidizing compounds that complicate organic detection.

This work also sheds light on the preservation mechanisms for organics under Martian surface conditions. Mars is notorious for its exposure to high radiation fluxes and oxidative soils, both factors that typically destroy complex molecules over geologic timescales. The protective role of sulfate minerals offers a plausible explanation for how PAHs and perhaps other organics could survive in near-surface sediments, a finding that shapes future exploration strategies aimed at biosignature detection. Understanding the chemical micro-environment within sulfate matrices will be crucial for interpreting the organic inventory found both by Perseverance and subsequent missions.

Equally important is the implication for sample return missions, which are currently planned as a next step in Mars exploration. While in situ analyses by rovers provide invaluable information, laboratory examinations on Earth will allow for a far more comprehensive characterization of these putatively biogenic organics, including isotopic analyses, molecular sequencing, and detailed mineralogical context. The identification of PAHs co-localized with sulfates prioritizes Jezero samples as critical targets for the Mars Sample Return campaign, heightening the scientific stakes and excitement surrounding this effort.

Moreover, this discovery invites a reassessment of Mars’ volcanic and hydrothermal history as a potential cradle for abiotic organic synthesis. Geological models will need to integrate the formation pathways of PAHs within ancient igneous systems, linking magmatic activity with chemical gradients that facilitate complex organic chemistry. Such scenarios parallel early Earth conditions, hinting that Mars may have once possessed niches conducive to the emergence of life or at least the prebiotic chemistry that precedes it.

From an astrobiological perspective, the presence of PAHs in sulfate deposits not only aids in reconstructing environmental conditions but also opens the door to detecting molecular fossils or remnants if life ever existed on Mars. Given the inherent stability of PAHs, their detection represents a stepping stone toward unraveling more complex organic assemblages that could bear the hallmarks of past biotic activity. Future missions equipped with more sophisticated instrumentation could exploit these findings to focus their search within sulfate-rich contexts throughout the Martian surface.

This revelation also highlights the transformative capabilities of the Perseverance rover’s scientific payload. The deployment of Raman spectrometers capable of detecting subtle molecular signatures under Martian conditions demonstrates a leap forward in robotic planetary science. The extrapolation of such techniques to other planetary bodies, including icy moons and asteroids, promises to revolutionize our search for organics across the solar system, building on the success first realized on Mars.

While the current findings represent a significant stride forward, they also underscore the complex interplay between geology and organic chemistry on Mars that scientists are only beginning to decipher. Continued multidisciplinary efforts combining spectroscopy, mineralogy, geochemistry, and planetary geology will be essential to unravel the provenance and distribution of organics on Mars. Each new data point contributes to a more nuanced picture of the Red Planet’s past and its habitability potential.

In summary, the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons closely associated with sulfates at Jezero crater via Perseverance’s Raman analysis marks a milestone in Mars exploration. These data enhance our understanding of organic molecule formation, preservation, and distribution in Mars’ ancient aqueous environments, offering concrete clues about the planet’s geochemical processes and potential for harboring life. Importantly, they chart a clear path forward for sample return initiatives, which will allow comprehensive laboratory studies that may finally illuminate whether Mars once hosted biological activity.

As excitement builds around these findings, the scientific community anticipates that returning material from Jezero crater to Earth laboratories will unlock the detailed molecular and isotopic insights necessary to confirm the astrobiological relevance of these organics. Until that moment, the evidence from Perseverance’s Raman spectrometer provides an extraordinary glimpse into Mars’ chemical past and affirms the critical role of sulfate minerals in preserving the elusive organic signatures that may tell the story of life beyond Earth.

Subject of Research: Detection and characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sulfate minerals at Jezero crater on Mars and implications for the preservation of organic matter.

Article Title: Evidence for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons detected in sulfates at Jezero crater by the Perseverance rover.

Article References:
Fornaro, T., Sharma, S., Jakubek, R.S. et al. Evidence for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons detected in sulfates at Jezero crater by the Perseverance rover. Nat Astron (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-025-02638-z

Image Credits: AI Generated

Atmospheric waves are disturbances that propagate through an atmosphere, analogous to waves on a water surface. These waves significantly impact atmospheric conditions, influencing temperature distributions, winds, and cloud formations. The study meticulously examined 263 groups of these atmospheric waves while delving into the details of 125 specific cases. Researchers focused on identifying a trio of major phenomena observed in mine Martian atmosphere: dry ice waves, water waves, and dust storms, each presenting unique challenges for analysis due to their differing visual signatures.

One of the most daunting challenges faced by the researchers was the identification of images that featured clouds among hundreds of thousands of photographs captured by Mars Express. Clouds on Mars are notoriously sparse and seldom seen, thus making the analysis heavily resource-intensive. Despite these hurdles, the team employed robust methodologies for selecting and analyzing images, ensuring that their findings maintained precision and accuracy.

The study highlights how atmospheric waves form differently on Mars compared to Earth, unveiling new aspects of Martian meteorology. Research leader Pedro Machado from the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Lisbon stated that the differences between the two planets are even more pronounced than previously thought. Notably, the study discovered a greater asymmetry in weather patterns between Mars’ northern and southern hemispheres than had been established in earlier research efforts.

By utilizing the OMEGA data, the researchers gained insights into the dynamics of climate systems that operate on Mars. These findings pave the way for better climate models, which can help predict how Martian weather patterns might evolve in the future. Understanding these atmospheric processes is vital, as it allows scientists to comprehend how energy fluctuations in the Martian atmosphere may affect its overall climate.

Following the initial findings of this research, the authors are further developing observational techniques that will facilitate a deeper analysis of Martian atmospheric waves. This involves gathering additional data and employing advanced methodologies to assess wind fields across the Martian landscape. By executing these complex analytical strategies, the team hopes to unravel even more mysteries contained within Mars’ lower atmosphere.

As the research progresses, there are significant implications for future missions to Mars. Detailed investigations into atmospheric waves could enhance the safety and effectiveness of human exploration initiatives by providing crucial information about Martian weather conditions, thereby equipping astronauts with the necessary insights to navigate and survive in this alien environment.

The study not only highlights the importance of international collaboration in space research but also exemplifies how cutting-edge technological advancements transform our understanding of alien worlds. With a diverse team composed of experts from various backgrounds and countries, the study exemplifies how collaboration can yield groundbreaking discoveries in the quest to better comprehend Mars.

In summary, this research is more than a collection of data; it is a comprehensive examination of atmospheric physics on Mars that opens the door to numerous exploration opportunities. The continuous analysis and method development executed by researchers Brazil and Machado promise to reinvent our interactions with Mars, providing a more refined understanding of its atmosphere. As they push the envelope of atmospheric science, they are enabling future generations of explorers to experience Mars more intimately and safely.

The direction of Martian atmospheric research has been transformed due to ambitious projects like these. Findings from this study mark a significant milestone in planetary atmospheric science, challenging prior assumptions while laying a foundation for subsequent explorations. As the international scientific community continues to unravel the enigmas surrounding Mars’ weather patterns, excitement builds for the additional revelations that await further scrutiny.

Moreover, the ongoing research might contribute significantly to comparative planetology, enabling scientists to establish connections between weather phenomena on Mars and those on other celestial bodies. This holistic understanding of atmospheres across various planets will deepen our comprehension of atmospheric science as a whole and could have profound implications for understanding climate change on Earth as well.

In conclusion, the recent study’s revelations serve as a stepping stone toward unveiling the complexities of Mars’ atmospheric behavior. As scientists probe deeper into the atmospheric mysteries of the Martian environment, we are reminded of the yet-unexplored territories awaiting discovery. The journey of scientific inquiry into Mars’ lower atmosphere is just beginning, with much more to learn about our neighboring planet’s climate systems and their larger implications for planetary science.

Subject of Research: Atmospheric waves in Mars’ lower atmosphere
Article Title: Atmospheric Gravity Waves in Mars’ Lower Atmosphere: Nadir Observations From OMEGA/Mars Express Data
News Publication Date: 4-Mar-2025
Web References: DOI link
References: None provided
Image Credits: F. Brasil, P. Machado, G. Gilli, A. Cardesín-Moinelo, J. E. Silva, D. Espadinha, L. Riu, J. Carter, C. Wilson

Keywords

Mars, atmospheric waves, climate dynamics, OMEGA, Mars Express, planetary science, meteorology, international research, exploration, dust storms, dry ice waves, water waves.

A groundbreaking study led by an international team, including scientists from the University of Tokyo and NASA, has demonstrated a novel method for detecting ancient microbial life in rock samples that mimic the geology of Mars. This research is pivotal as it aims to establish protocols for the safe analysis of Martian samples while addressing the potential risks associated with sample return missions. The complexity of this endeavor cannot be overstated. As humanity prepares to explore the Martian surface more intimately, the stakes are extraordinarily high. Contaminating Earth with extraterrestrial microbes could have unforeseen and potentially catastrophic consequences.

The international Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) has recognized these risks and developed a comprehensive sample safety assessment framework. Established protocols aim to minimize the risk of contamination during the collection, transportation, and examination of Martian rock samples. A significant challenge lies in the fact that, so far, there have been no confirmed biological samples from Mars, thus creating an urgent need for researchers like Associate Professor Yohey Suzuki and his dedicated team to discover effective methods for detecting such life forms. The study, which investigates ancient rocks rich in microbial life analogous to potential Martian samples, marks an essential step in this direction.

Initially, conventional analytic methods used in microbiology proved inadequate, failing to locate microbial cells within ancient rock formations. Informative discussions within the research team highlighted the necessity of employing a technique sensitive enough to discern life that has survived within 100-million-year-old basalt rock. Instead of expending existing resources on techniques that demanded extensive sample preparation, troops in the lab pivoted towards a pioneering technology: optical photothermal infrared (O-PTIR) spectroscopy.

O-PTIR represents a transformative approach to microbial analysis, shining infrared light onto the surfaces of prepared samples to elicit valuable insights. The researchers meticulously designed their methodology, removing outer layers of the rocks to aid in the analysis without compromising the integrity of the remaining material. This preservation-centric philosophy echoes the approach taken during the moon landings when scientists developed protocols to protect lunar samples from contamination and degradation.

The results from the application of O-PTIR spectroscopy were extraordinary, uncovering details within the samples at a resolution of half a micrometer—an unparalleled achievement in the quest to distinguish living structures within ancient rock. The pioneering aspect of this study lies in its non-destructive methodology, allowing for extensive future testing on preserved samples, which is essential given the rarity of anticipated Martian materials. These developments provide an optimistic outlook for the future of Astrobiology, inspiring scientists who seek to unravel the mysteries of microbial life both on Earth and beyond.

Further exploring the implications of their findings, the research team acknowledges the need to extend the capabilities of their instrument to examine older basalt rock approximating two billion years old. Such ancient samples have long been considered analogues for study as they mirror the geological contexts from which Martian samples will soon be retrieved. In examining these archaic rocks, researchers can refine their techniques to foster significant breakthroughs in astrobiological investigations.

Additionally, Associate Professor Suzuki expressed excitement about exploring various rock types, especially carbonates, which frequently harbor microbial life both on Earth and potentially on Mars. This ongoing study represents a remarkable crossroad in the field, offering researchers a chance to apply innovative technologies directly to pressing scientific inquiries. The anticipation of uncovering ancient microbial life invites immense intrigue and serves as a rallying cry for scientists dedicated to pushing the boundaries of our collective knowledge.

As the exploration of Mars intensifies and sample return missions inch closer to reality, the implications of this research extend far beyond the realm of theoretical exploration. Many researchers perceive a pivotal moment lies within reach, where answers about the existence of life beyond Earth could emerge unequivocally. The natural curiosity that propels scientific investigation drives the broader narrative, intertwining humanity’s quest for knowledge with our innate desire to understand our cosmic significance.

In conclusion, as the scientific community looks towards an imminent future of Mars exploration, the footsteps of research, such as that conducted by Suzuki and his team, signal overwhelming promise. The world watches closely, eager for revelations that could alter humanity’s understanding of life itself. By employing cutting-edge techniques like O-PTIR spectroscopy, scientists are on the verge of potentially transformative discoveries that may redefine our relationship with the universe. The way forward rests firmly in their hands, and as they endeavor into unexplored territories, the answers to one of humanity’s greatest questions may soon come pushing through the dust of time.

Subject of Research: Detection of microbial life in Mars-analogue rocks
Article Title: Submicron-scale detection of microbes and smectite from the interior of a Mars-analogue basalt sample by optical photothermal infrared spectroscopy
News Publication Date: 19-Feb-2025
Web References: International Journal of Astrobiology
References: Yohey Suzuki et al. (2025) International Journal of Astrobiology
Image Credits: ©2025 Suzuki et al. CC-BY-ND

Keywords

Mars, microbial life, astrobiology, optical photothermal infrared spectroscopy, geobiology, sample return missions, ancient rocks, COSPAR, Earth contamination, Mars exploration.