What separates magnetic nanorobots from the nanoparticles that already populate cancer nanomedicine is agency. Conventional nanocarriers, including approved formulations such as the albumin-bound paclitaxel particle Abraxane, are essentially passive: they drift with blood flow, rely on the leaky vasculature of tumors for passive accumulation through the enhanced permeability and retention effect, or depend on surface ligands to find their targets. MNRs, by contrast, are active machines. Driven by rotating or oscillating magnetic fields that penetrate biological fluids without fuel or chemical propellants, they propel, rotate, swarm, and reconfigure on command. Beyond navigation, they can perform physical work, perforating cell membranes, penetrating tissue, and applying mechanical force, moving nanomedicine from passive delivery toward active intervention and manipulation inside the body.

The review traces how these machines are built, distinguishing two fabrication philosophies. Top-down approaches, including photolithography, two-photon polymerization, focused ion beam milling, and electron beam lithography, carve precise three-dimensional structures out of larger materials, with electron beam methods reaching sub-10-nanometer resolution at high cost. Bottom-up approaches, such as self-assembly, chemical vapor deposition, DNA origami, and wet chemical synthesis, build devices molecule by molecule, offering atomic-level compositional control and the ability to embed bioactive ligands like polyethylene glycol directly during synthesis. Increasingly, researchers combine both: a top-down structural chassis provides geometric precision, while bottom-up chemistry supplies magnetic nanoparticles, drug payloads, and targeting ligands, integrated through microfluidics or surface chemistry. The synthesis route, the authors emphasize, ultimately governs magnetic responsiveness, drug-loading capacity, and degradation kinetics.

Shape determines how these robots swim. The review classifies MNRs into five families: spherical robots that roll or slide through fluids; helical robots inspired by bacterial flagella that convert rotation into corkscrew thrust in low-Reynolds-number liquids; flexible robots that deform to squeeze through narrow passages, such as artificial flagella built from red blood cells linked by DNA hinges; wire-like robots fabricated by template-assisted electrochemical deposition that navigate complex environments; and biohybrid robots that fuse living or biological components with magnetic materials. One striking example uses Spirulina, a spiral-shaped microorganism, as a natural template coated with iron oxide nanoparticles, producing a magnetically steerable robot that carries anticancer drugs and doubles as a photothermal therapy platform. Locomotion strategies mirror this diversity, spanning corkscrew propulsion, traveling-wave and ciliary-stroke motion, and surface-assisted rolling along vessel walls.

The most clinically consequential capability may be on-demand drug release. The review catalogs a growing arsenal of stimuli-responsive designs that promise zero leakage, rapid response, and release only at the tumor site. Near-infrared light triggers drug liberation from chitosan-based hollow magnetic nanocarriers loaded with doxorubicin, which weaken drug-binding electrostatic interactions under irradiation while generating local heat. The acidic tumor microenvironment, a byproduct of intensified glycolysis in hypoxic tumors, cleaves pH-sensitive bonds in other designs. Some robots exploit biochemistry itself: zinc-based cystine microrobots self-destruct inside prostate cancer cells when the intracellular reducing environment degrades their amino acid scaffold, releasing therapeutic zinc ions, while bismuth-based tubular robots achieve ultrafast release through electrochemical reduction. Machine learning is now entering the design loop, with physics-informed neural networks achieving high prediction accuracy for pH-triggered release kinetics across physiological conditions.

Biohybrid systems push biocompatibility further by borrowing from nature outright. Chlorella, a single-celled microalgae smaller than a human red blood cell, has been magnetized, loaded with doxorubicin, and assembled into chains through dynamic magnetic self-assembly, yielding microrobots with strong propulsion at low Reynolds numbers and pH-responsive release. Amoeba-inspired nanorobots made of deformable polyphosphoester squeeze from blood vessels deep into tumor tissue before releasing their cargo under an alternating magnetic field. A two-stage marsupial system for glioblastoma sends a mother robot across the blood-brain barrier, from which child robots deploy for precise secondary targeting within the brain. Even the cell membrane itself has become a target: gold nanorods coated with nickel and titanium layers mechanically agitate cancer cell membranes under magnetic rotation, opening transient pores that admit drugs directly.

MNRs are also being engineered to remodel the tumor microenvironment rather than merely survive it. Enzymatic cascade robots co-loading lactate oxidase and catalase consume lactate to relieve tumor acidity while generating oxygen bubbles that propel them deeper into tissue, simultaneously easing the hypoxia that drives malignancy. Macrophage-focused designs exploit the fact that surface topography influences immune cell polarization: nanoscale-smooth magnetic robots push macrophages toward the anti-tumor M1 phenotype, M1-membrane-coated photothermal nanocomplexes home to tumors naturally, and magnetized living macrophages loaded with doxorubicin and indocyanine green act as controllable cellular robots. A magnetically driven calcium carbonate robot neutralizes tumor acidity while restoring dendritic cell activity, promoting cross-presentation of antigens and triggering cellular immune responses against the tumor.

Therapeutically, the two dominant modalities are photothermal therapy, in which magnetic navigation delivers photothermal agents that convert near-infrared light into lethal local heat, and chemodynamic therapy, which exploits the tumor’s own hydrogen peroxide through Fenton reactions catalyzed by iron, copper, or manganese ions to generate cell-killing hydroxyl radicals. Combination platforms are multiplying: a biomimetic nanorobot cloaked in a platelet and M1 macrophage hybrid membrane crosses the blood-brain barrier and combines photothermal therapy, chemodynamic therapy, temozolomide chemotherapy, and PD-L1 immune checkpoint blockade against glioblastoma. Heater-thermometer nanorobot clusters now provide feedback-controlled hyperthermia, using their own color changes to regulate irradiation with high spatiotemporal precision and avoid the collateral damage of overheating.

Clinical translation remains the hardest step, and the review is candid about the gap. No true magnetic nanorobot has yet entered clinical trials, though related nanotechnologies offer encouraging precedents, from gold nanoshell ablation trials to MRI-guided gadolinium nanoparticle radiosensitization and ferumoxytol imaging. Preclinical milestones are nonetheless striking: a clinically ready magnetic microrobot platform has navigated the vascular networks of pigs and sheep, achieving up to 95 percent delivery success in flowing vessels, and an algorithm-guided magnetic resonance navigation system multiplied the number of microrobots reaching targeted liver lobes in patient simulations. The obstacles ahead include the protein corona that rewrites a nanorobot’s biological identity in blood, batch-to-batch manufacturing variability, sterilization complexity, ambiguous regulatory status as combination drug-device products, and the absence of any single imaging modality adequate for real-time tracking. The authors see artificial intelligence as the integrating force ahead, from reinforcement learning-based navigation to deep learning reconstruction of three-dimensional robot positions from two-dimensional MRI, pointing toward closed-loop, perception-decision-execution systems that could finally turn laboratory promise into hospital-bed reality.

Subject of Research: Magnetic nanorobots for targeted cancer drug delivery and theranostics

Article Title: Magnetic nanorobots in oncology: From targeted drug delivery to smart theranostic systems

Article References: Liu, X., Li, C., Xu, Z., Yan, Y., Liu, W., Li, Y., & Gao, M. (2026). Magnetic nanorobots in oncology: From targeted drug delivery to smart theranostic systems. Materials Today Bio, 41, Article 103709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2026.103709

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2026.103709

Keywords: magnetic nanorobots, targeted drug delivery, cancer therapy, photothermal therapy, chemodynamic therapy, tumor microenvironment, biohybrid microrobots, stimuli-responsive release, nanomedicine, clinical translation, artificial intelligence, theranostics