Published in Nature Biotechnology, the work introduces a non-invasive nanoparticle barcoding platform called snapCodes. The method is designed to determine which LNP formulation successfully delivers its mRNA cargo and prompts cells to produce the encoded protein. Rather than relying on tissue harvesting, the researchers identify delivery events through DNA barcodes that can be recovered from serum and analyzed by sequencing. The approach could allow scientists to compare many candidate nanoparticles in a single nonhuman primate while reducing both animal use and the logistical burden of downstream analysis.

The central challenge addressed by the study is that nanoparticle delivery is not adequately described by measuring where an LNP travels. An LNP may reach an organ or circulate in the bloodstream without releasing its mRNA in a form that cells can translate. The new system instead records functional mRNA delivery. Each nanoparticle is associated with a distinctive DNA sequence, and the mRNA cargo is engineered to encode a fusion protein containing nanoluciferase and a SNAP-tag. Nanoluciferase is a compact enzyme that produces light in the presence of its substrate, while the SNAP-tag is a protein module capable of forming a covalent bond with specific chemical groups.

For the barcode to become a permanent molecular record of delivery, the researchers modified the DNA tags with benzylguanine. When a cell receives an mRNA molecule encoding the nanoluciferase–SNAP-tag fusion, the resulting protein can react with a benzylguanine-bearing snapCode. This creates a stable DNA–protein complex. The complexes are then exported from cells into the circulation, where they can be isolated from a small serum sample. Sequencing the recovered DNA reveals which barcoded LNPs produced the fusion protein and therefore achieved functional mRNA delivery.

The design turns transient protein expression into a measurable signal that can be collected without sacrificing the animal. This is particularly valuable in studies involving nonhuman primates, where tissue-based nanoparticle profiling can require euthanasia and can limit the number of formulations tested in each subject. A blood-based assay also makes it possible to monitor delivery over time, potentially showing how the activity of a formulation changes after dosing. The study used just 30 microliters of serum, a volume small enough to support repeated sampling and longitudinal measurements.

Before comparing nanoparticle performance, the researchers validated the molecular components of the system, including the activity of the snapCode chemistry and the ability of the fusion protein to participate in the intended covalent reaction. These steps were necessary to establish that the barcode signal reflected genuine expression of the delivered mRNA rather than nonspecific interactions. Once the platform had been characterized, the team used it to evaluate multiple chemically distinct LNPs in living animals.

The investigators intravenously administered six snapCoded LNP formulations to mice and nonhuman primates. Each formulation carried its own molecular identity, allowing all six candidates to be assessed in parallel. Serum collected after administration was analyzed for the DNA–fusion protein complexes, and sequencing was used to quantify the relative delivery activity associated with each barcode. By testing the same barcoded set across species, the researchers could directly examine whether patterns observed in mice were reproduced in nonhuman primates.

Such cross-species comparisons are crucial because LNP composition strongly influences biological behavior. Changes in ionizable lipids, helper lipids, cholesterol, polyethylene glycol-lipid components or particle structure can affect stability, organ distribution, cellular uptake and endosomal escape. These properties may differ substantially between rodents and primates because of differences in blood proteins, immune responses, tissue physiology and cellular trafficking. A method that measures expression from several formulations in the same animal may therefore reveal species-specific delivery patterns more efficiently than traditional one-formulation-per-animal experiments.

The snapCode strategy does not replace every form of nanoparticle analysis. It reports successful expression of a particular engineered mRNA and depends on the recovery and sequencing of the associated molecular complexes. It does not, by itself, provide a complete map of tissue distribution, long-term safety or therapeutic efficacy. Nevertheless, it adds a functional layer to LNP evaluation: scientists can ask not only where particles go, but which particles actually release mRNA that cells translate. In early development, that distinction can help prioritize candidates before more resource-intensive studies begin.

By combining multiplexed dosing with low-volume serum sampling, the researchers aim to make nonhuman primate testing more informative while using fewer animals. The platform could be adapted for screening delivery systems designed for different organs or therapeutic proteins, provided that the encoded reporter and barcode chemistry remain compatible with the intended experiment. As mRNA medicines expand beyond vaccines into gene editing, immunotherapy and protein replacement, tools that connect nanoparticle chemistry to real biological output may become increasingly important. Non-invasive barcoding offers a way to track those differences in living subjects and could help narrow the path from promising LNP design to clinically relevant drug candidate.

Subject of Research: A non-invasive method for comparing functional mRNA delivery by multiple lipid nanoparticles in mice and nonhuman primates using serum-based DNA barcodes.

Article Title: Non-invasive nanoparticle barcoding in nonhuman primates

Article References: Jang, B., Zenhausern, R., Lian, L. et al. Non-invasive nanoparticle barcoding in nonhuman primates. Nat Biotechnol (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-026-03262-6

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-026-03262-6

Keywords: lipid nanoparticles, mRNA delivery, nanoparticle barcoding, snapCodes, SNAP-tag, nanoluciferase, nonhuman primates, serum sequencing, drug delivery, RNA therapeutics

Macrophages, a vital component of the innate immune system, are known for their capacity to engulf and destroy pathogens and abnormal cells, including tumor cells. Unlike T cells, which have been extensively studied and utilized in CAR-T therapies, macrophages offer unique therapeutic advantages due to their inherent presence in tumor microenvironments and their capacity to modulate immune responses. However, engineering macrophages to express CARs has historically presented formidable challenges, particularly regarding efficient delivery methods and sustained functionality.

The research team, led by Gu, K., Liang, T., Hu, L., and collaborators, has circumvented these challenges by leveraging the cutting-edge field of mRNA technology combined with lipid nanoparticle delivery systems. Their approach entails the intraperitoneal injection of mRNA encapsulated within lipid nanoparticles tailored for uptake by peritoneal macrophages. Upon internalization, the mRNA drives the transient expression of CAR molecules on macrophages, thereby reprogramming their targeting capabilities against tumor-specific antigens.

This strategy contrasts sharply with ex vivo modification techniques, which require isolating immune cells from the patient, genetically modifying them in laboratory settings, and reinfusing them—a cumbersome process with logistical and cost barriers. Intraperitoneal programming allows for direct in vivo transformation of macrophages, vastly simplifying the therapeutic procedure and potentially broadening accessibility to CAR-macrophage therapies.

Technical validation involved a series of rigorous experiments demonstrating efficient mRNA delivery and CAR expression within macrophages harvested from treated models. The lipid nanoparticles exhibited optimal physicochemical properties, including size, charge, and stability, facilitating successful fusion with the cell membranes and endosomal escape of mRNA. The transient nature of mRNA expression also offers safety advantages by limiting prolonged CAR expression, thus mitigating risks of off-target effects and cytokine release syndromes commonly associated with persistent CAR cell therapies.

From an immunological perspective, the reprogrammed macrophages exhibited enhanced phagocytic activity against cancer cells expressing target antigens without eliciting excessive inflammatory responses. These tailored CAR macrophages effectively infiltrated tumor sites, overcoming the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment that often inhibits immune cell activity. Notably, intraperitoneal administration resulted in superior local concentrations of CAR-macrophages within peritoneal tumors, a critical factor for effective tumor eradication.

The versatility of this platform is evidenced by its adaptability to various tumor types depending on the CAR design encoded within the mRNA. By merely altering the antigen recognition domain in the CAR construct, this method is capable of targeting a broad spectrum of malignancies, including those resistant to conventional therapies. The rapid manufacturing turnaround time and modularity make it an attractive candidate for personalized medicine applications, where therapy is tailored to the patient’s unique tumor antigen profile.

Advanced imaging and flow cytometry analyses further corroborated the systemic safety of this intervention. The confined intraperitoneal delivery minimized systemic exposure to nanoparticles and CAR-modified macrophages, reducing the probability of adverse systemic immune reactions. Additionally, pharmacokinetic profiling revealed that the CAR expression was transient, subsiding within a therapeutically sufficient window to allow effective tumor clearance while diminishing prolonged immune activation.

Beyond direct tumor killing, these engineered macrophages also demonstrated the capacity to modulate the immune hierarchy by influencing T cell responses. By secreting pro-inflammatory cytokines and presenting tumor antigens, CAR macrophages stimulated adaptive immunity, creating an immunological cascade that further amplified antitumor effects. This dual action—direct phagocytosis combined with immune system engagement—marks a significant leap in cancer immunotherapy design.

This research highlights the enormous therapeutic potential of intraperitoneal mRNA LNP delivery systems in circumventing the limitations of CAR-T therapy, including tumor antigen escape and T cell exhaustion. Macrophages, being resilient to the hostile tumor microenvironment, can sustain their antitumor functions more effectively when engineered in situ via this cutting-edge platform. Early preclinical models showed promising tumor regression outcomes, setting the stage for expedited translation into clinical trials.

Importantly, this study also opens pathways for exploring similar mRNA-based reprogramming of other innate immune cells, broadening the scope and impact of cancer immunotherapy. The ethical and manufacturing advantages of avoiding viral vectors and permanent genetic modification present a transformative shift in the therapeutic landscape, blending precision medicine with scalable drug development processes.

As mRNA technologies mature post the COVID-19 pandemic advances, their application in oncology marks one of the most salient frontiers today. The adaptability, safety profiles, and transient expression kinetics of mRNA encoded therapies align perfectly with the dynamic and heterogenous nature of tumors. The future promise of intraperitoneal LNP-mediated CAR macrophage therapy may well yield new hope for patients with notoriously difficult-to-treat cancers.

While challenges remain, including optimizing dosing regimens, enhancing LNP targeting specificity, and comprehensively evaluating long-term safety, this research sets a high benchmark. The capacity to program immune cells internally using non-viral, lipid-based mRNA vectors represents a technical revolution poised to accelerate development timelines and improve patient outcomes.

This pioneering work, reported in Nature Communications (2025), represents a formidable stride toward realizing the full potential of immune system engineering for cancer therapy. By harnessing the innate power of macrophages and the flexibility of mRNA lipid nanoparticle delivery, researchers are blazing a trail toward more effective, accessible, and safer immunotherapies capable of transforming oncologic care paradigms worldwide.

As clinical translation efforts begin, the oncology and immunology communities eagerly anticipate the impact of intraperitoneal mRNA LNP programming on patient survival and quality of life. This breakthrough approach underscores a broader paradigm shift in using biodegradable, non-integrative nucleic acid delivery for precise and adaptable immune interventions, laying the groundwork for a new era in cancer treatment innovation.

Subject of Research:
Intraperitoneal programming of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) macrophages using mRNA lipid nanoparticles to enhance cancer immunotherapy efficacy.

Article Title:
Intraperitoneal programming of tailored CAR macrophages via mRNA lipid nanoparticle to boost cancer immunotherapy

Article References:
Gu, K., Liang, T., Hu, L. et al. Intraperitoneal programming of tailored CAR macrophages via mRNA lipid nanoparticle to boost cancer immunotherapy. Nat Commun (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-67674-9

Image Credits:
AI Generated

Central to this revelation was the use of a trifecta of complementary biophysical techniques, enabling unprecedented scrutiny of LNP size, internal architecture, and cargo distribution—all while preserving the particles in their native, solution-phase environments. Sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation (SV-AUC), field-flow fractionation coupled with multi-angle light scattering (FFF-MALS), and size-exclusion chromatography integrated with synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (SEC-SAXS) were applied synergistically. Together, these methods deconvoluted the hydrodynamic profiles, density variations, and sub-nanometer structural organization within four benchmark LNP formulations, including those integral to COVID-19 vaccines and the FDA-approved Onpattro therapy.

This multifaceted approach marked a critical advance over prior studies that typically relied on isolated techniques—often freezing particles or tagging them with fluorescent markers—which inadvertently introduced artifacts or obscured structural heterogeneity. By circumventing these pitfalls, the team delineated variations not just between formulations but also among individual particles within the same batch. The findings reveal that LNPs are less uniform than previously thought, with shape and internal arrangement significantly influencing performance in biological systems.

Michael J. Mitchell, Associate Professor of Bioengineering at the University of Pennsylvania and a co-senior author of the study, likened the diversity to a fleet of specialized vehicles. “We no longer see LNPs as a homogenous model but rather a collection of distinct designs—akin to pickups, vans, and freight trucks tailored for varying therapeutic routes and targets,” Mitchell explained. This analogy encapsulates a shift towards recognizing the necessity for bespoke nanoparticle formulations optimized for specific tissues, cell types, and molecular payloads.

Kushol Gupta, Research Assistant Professor in Biochemistry and Biophysics and co-senior author, emphasized that understanding this complexity is not merely academic but foundational for clinical success. “Our work provides fundamental insights into how nanoparticle composition and architecture modulate biological interactions, potentially transforming the efficiency and specificity with which therapies reach their targets,” Gupta noted. The implications of this are profound: refined LNP design could accelerate the development of RNA therapies, enhance gene editing strategies, and reduce systemic side effects by ensuring precise delivery.

A particularly intriguing aspect of the research lies in the role of nanoparticle preparation methods. The study compared microfluidic mixing—a highly controlled, small-tube flow-driven process—and manual micropipetting. Though microfluidics generally yielded more uniform particles, micropipetting occasionally produced LNPs with superior functional profiles depending on the therapeutic context. This nuanced discovery highlights the importance of process engineering alongside chemical formulation, underscoring that small changes in manufacturing can dramatically impact nanoparticle efficacy and behavior in vivo.

The examination of how internal nanoparticle structure correlates with biological outcomes was further informed by testing across diverse models, including human T cells, cancerous cells, and animal studies. Doctoral researcher Hannah Yamagata found that no single LNP configuration was universally optimal. Instead, particle architecture needed to be matched judiciously to the target cell type or tissue environment for maximal delivery efficiency and therapeutic effect. This contextual dependency reiterates the fallacy of a one-size-fits-all approach, advocating for a paradigm of precision nanoparticle medicine tuned to the biological terrain.

Crucially, the study’s success was predicated on the synergy of academic, industrial, and national laboratory expertise. Waters Corporation provided sophisticated instrumentation for characterizing LNP size and drug load without disruption, while the National Synchrotron Light Source II at Brookhaven allowed nanoscale structural insights using intense X-ray beams. This cross-sector collaboration exemplifies the future of nanomedicine research, where deep specialization and shared resources converge to unravel complex biological phenomena.

Beyond technical sophistication, the work paves the path to predictive and rational LNP design, replacing the longstanding empirical “trial and error” methods that characterized the field. The integration of high-resolution structural data with biological performance metrics sets the stage for computational modeling and artificial intelligence approaches to anticipate how compositional tweaks and manufacturing conditions will influence therapeutic outcomes—potentially accelerating drug development timelines.

Importantly, while some of the analytical tools deployed (such as synchrotron radiation facilities) remain scarce, many laboratory techniques used for particle sizing and characterization are accessible to a broad range of researchers. The generation of shared, comprehensive data sets could catalyze an era of collaborative and data-driven nanoparticle engineering, democratizing advances for both academic inquiry and pharmaceutical innovation.

This study signifies a milestone, reframing lipid nanoparticles from passive carriers into complex functional devices whose architecture intimately governs their destiny within biological systems. As Mitchell concluded, “Our findings offer a roadmap for designing next-generation lipid nanoparticles with the precision and personalization akin to that of the drugs they carry, unlocking new therapeutic possibilities.”

Subject of Research: Cells
Article Title: Elucidating lipid nanoparticle properties and structure through biophysical analyses
News Publication Date: 23-Oct-2025
Web References: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41587-025-02855-x
References: Nature Biotechnology, DOI: 10.1038/s41587-025-02855-x
Image Credits: Bella Ciervo
Keywords: Lipid nanoparticles, nanomedicine, RNA therapy, nanoparticle structure, biophysical characterization, synchrotron X-ray scattering, ultracentrifugation, microfluidics, therapeutic delivery, gene therapy, COVID-19 vaccine, nanoparticle heterogeneity

The research team employed an innovative cryogenic mass spectrometry approach known as Cryogenic Orbitrap Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (Cryo-OrbiSIMS), an advanced imaging technique capable of profiling frozen lipid nanoparticles in exquisite detail. This approach maintains samples in a near-native hydrated state through high-pressure freezing, allowing the examination of molecular structures without the distortions typically introduced by conventional sample preparation. Such technological sophistication offers a first-ever glimpse into the spatial organization of the lipid components within LNPs, shedding light on how each molecular layer is arranged and oriented.

Lipid nanoparticles have garnered significant attention for their role in delivering RNA therapeutics effectively into cells. The success of mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 propelled LNPs into the spotlight, highlighting their transformative potential in medicine. Beyond vaccines, LNPs are increasingly integral in gene therapies targeting a spectrum of diseases, including hereditary neuropathies and challenging pulmonary conditions such as cystic fibrosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. However, the complexity of these nanoparticles’ structures and their dynamic behaviors has historically posed hurdles to optimizing performance and ensuring reproducibility in manufacturing.

The Nottingham-led study’s ability to dissect the relative positions of the molecular components within LNPs provides a foundational understanding that could dramatically improve drug formulation strategies. By revealing how lipids, RNA, and other constituents stratify and interact at nanoscale layers, researchers can begin to rationally design nanoparticles with tailored properties—such as enhanced stability, controlled biodistribution, and targeted cellular uptake. This level of molecular precision is critical for tuning LNPs to maximize therapeutic payload delivery while minimizing adverse effects.

Moreover, the implications of this research extend beyond prototype development, addressing a major bottleneck in pharmaceutical scale-up. Quality control during large-scale manufacturing of nanoparticles has been challenging due to limited tools capable of resolving their complex structures in native states. Cryo-OrbiSIMS offers a powerful solution by enabling detailed surface and interfacial analysis that is both sensitive and non-destructive, ensuring consistency and safety in clinical-grade LNP production.

Contributing to this endeavor were collaborators from Sail Biomedicines in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and the UK’s National Physical Laboratory in Teddington. The multidisciplinary team’s synergy underscores the global importance and collaborative nature of advancing LNP technologies. Particularly, their use of cryogenic sample preservation techniques ensures that biological samples retain hydration and molecular integrity, which are essential for accurate mass spectrometry-based imaging.

Professor Morgan Alexander, who spearheaded the research, emphasized the longstanding challenge in characterizing the delicate surfaces of hydrated pharmaceutical systems. “Our cryogenic molecular surface and interfacial analysis breakthrough transcends previous technical limitations and opens exciting possibilities,” he remarked. With this new capability, the researchers anticipate extending investigations to diverse drug delivery platforms and hydrated biomaterials, potentially transforming multiple facets of biopharmaceutical research.

MIT’s Dr. Robert Langer, an eminent voice in biotechnology, highlighted the practical impact of these findings. He noted that the complex molecular interplay within LNPs governs their effectiveness, yet has been difficult to engineer with precision. This study provides a blueprint for in-depth molecular characterization, empowering scientists and pharmaceutical developers to engineer nanoparticles that consistently deliver therapeutic agents more potently and selectively than ever before.

Similarly, Kerry Benenato, Chief Platform Officer at Sail Biomedicines, underscored the importance of surface characterization in understanding nanoparticle behavior in vivo. “By enabling precise surface characterization, the technology developed by our team lays a foundation for designing LNP-based medicines with tunable properties including biodistribution,” Benenato explained. This prospect not only enhances the versatility of RNA therapies but also expands their applicability across a broad array of diseases, from genetic disorders to complex respiratory conditions.

The application of Cryo-OrbiSIMS technology represents a leap forward in the visualization and understanding of nanoscale pharmaceutical carriers. Unlike traditional analytical methods that often require drying or chemical fixation—processes that can alter or obscure natural structures—cryo-preparation preserves the original hydrated state. This fidelity ensures the captured molecular images are accurate reflections of LNP architecture as it exists in biological environments.

Researchers predict this new analytical platform will facilitate iterative design cycles for next-generation RNA delivery systems, enabling rapid feedback and optimization. This capability is crucial given the immense heterogeneity in lipid nanoparticle formulations, which vary by lipid composition, charge, size, and surface chemistry. By mapping these variables against functional outcomes, scientists aim to systematically decode the structure-function relationships that dictate therapeutic efficacy.

Beyond lipid nanoparticles, the implications of this method extend to other pharmaceutical and biomedical materials where surface and interfacial molecular arrangements determine performance. These could include complex hydrogel drug carriers, protein-based therapeutics, and even cellular biomaterials used in tissue engineering. Thus, this advancement is poised to catalyze innovation not only in nanomedicine but across the life sciences.

As RNA-based therapies continue to expand in scope—targeting everything from infectious diseases to rare genetic conditions and cancers—precise control of delivery vehicles becomes paramount. The Nottingham team’s cryogenic mass spectrometry approach provides an essential toolset to achieve that control, enabling the rational engineering of lipid nanoparticles that are safer, more efficient, and tailored to patient-specific therapeutic needs.

In conclusion, this study marks a monumental step in molecular nanotechnology and drug delivery science. By harnessing cutting-edge cryogenic mass spectrometry techniques, researchers have finally penetrated the complex molecular stratification of lipid nanoparticles with unprecedented detail. The insights gained are set to refine RNA therapeutic delivery on a fundamental level, unlocking new horizons in medicine and enhancing global health outcomes.

Subject of Research: Not applicable

Article Title: Study on molecular orientation and stratification in RNA-lipid nanoparticles by Cryogenic Orbitrap Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry

News Publication Date: 22-May-2025

Web References:
https://www.nature.com/articles/42004-025-01526-x
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42004-025-01526-x

References:
Communications Chemistry Journal, DOI: 10.1038/s42004-025-01526-x

Image Credits: Not provided

Keywords: Lipid Nanoparticles, RNA Therapeutics, Cryogenic Mass Spectrometry, Cryo-OrbiSIMS, Drug Delivery, Vaccine Technology, Molecular Orientation, Nanomedicine, Freeze Preservation, Biological Nanostructures, Pharmaceutical Scale-Up, RNA Vaccines