The research team, led by Onni Kärkkäjärvi of the Social Insurance Institution’s Research Unit together with colleagues from the University of Eastern Finland, the University of Helsinki, and Kela’s Medical Advisory Centre, conducted semi-structured thematic interviews with 16 Finnish experts in spring 2025. The interviewees represented diverse professional backgrounds relevant to the assessment and funding of cancer medicines, spanning the institutions that evaluate and pay for these therapies across the different channels of the Finnish system. The researchers analysed the interview data using deductive qualitative content analysis, mapping what the experts said onto a theoretical framework derived from the neo-Aristotelian Phronesis Model, and used pattern-matching to explore where the findings corresponded to, or diverged from, that framework.

The Phronesis Model is worth unpacking, because it gives the study its analytical spine. Phronesis, in Aristotelian philosophy, is practical wisdom: the capacity to deliberate well about what should be done in particular circumstances, weighing general principles against the specifics of the situation at hand. Applied to healthcare decision-making, the model suggests that good judgement requires more than clinical evidence and cost-effectiveness calculations; it requires an appreciation of context, of the values at stake, and of the particular patient populations and institutional settings in which a decision will land. Recent literature in health policy has increasingly emphasised that such context-sensitive judgement is not a flaw in decision systems but a necessary component of them, especially for technologies like cancer medicines, where benefits may be uncertain, patient populations heterogeneous, and value contested.

Finland’s multi-channel system provides a natural laboratory for studying how institutional arrangements enable or constrain this kind of judgement. Outpatient medicines, dispensed in pharmacies, are assessed and funded through one set of procedures, while hospital medicines, administered in specialist care, travel through another. Cancer medicines, many of which are administered in hospital settings, sit at the intersection of these channels, and decisions about them involve multiple bodies with different mandates. The researchers asked how this arrangement shapes decision-making, especially in situations where the standard assessment criteria leave room for interpretation, and where the specifics of a case might call for judgement that goes beyond the routine application of rules.

The interviews revealed a system with genuine strengths. Experts identified shared aims and values across the decision-making bodies, suggesting that despite the fragmentation of procedures, the institutions involved in assessing and funding cancer medicines are not pulling in opposite directions at the level of fundamental purpose. The assessment practices themselves were described as supporting comprehensive evaluation, with multiprofessional collaboration within decision-making bodies bringing together the clinical, pharmacological, economic, and administrative perspectives needed to evaluate complex cancer therapies. These collaborative structures, the study suggests, are precisely the kind of institutional features that create space for practical wisdom to operate, because they expose decision-makers to multiple framings of a problem rather than a single disciplinary lens.

But the same interviews surfaced structural weaknesses that cut against this collaborative ideal. The researchers found barriers to collaboration and information exchange between decision-making bodies, meaning that the different channels of the system operate in relative isolation from one another. National-level processes were perceived as insufficiently responsive to outlier cases, the unusual situations where standard criteria fit poorly and where context-sensitive judgement is most needed. Decision-making, in many cases, was constrained by siloed budgets, with different funding streams creating institutional pressure to keep costs within particular channels rather than to optimise outcomes across the system as a whole. Limited access to price information added a further constraint, because decision-makers cannot deliberate well about value when they lack reliable data about what therapies actually cost.

These findings matter because they illustrate a tension that is not unique to Finland. Any healthcare system that separates assessment and funding into distinct channels faces the question of how to coordinate those channels without erasing the flexibility that makes local judgement possible. The Finnish study suggests that harmonising or unifying the multi-channel model could improve equity, coordination, or system-level efficiency, but that such structural reform may not in itself address the need for context-sensitive ethical judgement in healthcare decision-making. In other words, merging the channels might solve some problems of fragmentation while leaving untouched the deeper question of how decision-makers deliberate about cases that resist standardisation.

The study’s use of the Phronesis Model as a pattern-matching framework gives this conclusion theoretical weight. By comparing the interview findings against the model’s components, the researchers could identify where the Finnish system supports the conditions for practical wisdom and where it undermines them. Shared values and multiprofessional collaboration correspond to the model’s emphasis on deliberative capacity and the integration of multiple perspectives. Siloed budgets, limited price transparency, and poor responsiveness to outlier cases correspond to institutional barriers that constrain the exercise of judgement, because they limit the information available to decision-makers and the room they have to weigh context against general rules. The institutional arrangements of the healthcare system, the study concludes, may either support or hinder room for contextual judgement, and the difference between these outcomes lies in the details of how those arrangements are designed.

For cancer medicines specifically, these dynamics have particular salience. Modern oncology therapies, including targeted agents and immunotherapies, often present steep prices, uncertain long-term benefits, and heterogeneous responses across patient subgroups. Standard health technology assessment criteria, built around average cost-effectiveness, may fit poorly with the realities of these therapies, where a medicine that looks unattractive on average might be highly valuable for a identifiable subgroup, or where clinical uncertainty makes firm conclusions about value difficult. Context-sensitive judgement, in this setting, is not an optional refinement but a core requirement of responsible decision-making, and the Finnish study suggests that the institutional environment determines whether that requirement can actually be met.

The researchers’ overall conclusion is a call for strengthening coordination without losing flexibility. The Finnish multi-channel system, on this reading, is neither a failure to be dismantled nor a model to be exported unchanged, but an arrangement whose institutional boundaries shape the quality of judgement in ways that policy reform should attend to. Structural harmonisation might address some of the equity and efficiency concerns that fragmentation creates, but reform that erases the room for context-sensitive deliberation would undermine the very capacity that good cancer medicines policy depends on. The study, based on voluntary expert interviews conducted with informed consent and approved by Kela’s Research Unit Management Team, offers no simple prescription, but it does offer a framework for thinking about how the architecture of assessment and funding systems, often treated as technical plumbing, actually determines the quality of the ethical decisions those systems produce.

Subject of Research: Cancer medicines assessment and funding in Finland: contextual judgement and institutional boundaries in a multi-channel system

Article Title: Cancer medicines assessment and funding in Finland: contextual judgement and institutional boundaries in a multi-channel system

Article References: Kärkkäjärvi, O., Ruuskanen, A.-M., Holmström, A.-R., Klintrup, K., Sarnola, K., Koskinen, H., & Kurko, T. (2026). Cancer medicines assessment and funding in Finland: contextual judgement and institutional boundaries in a multi-channel system. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-026-09497-7

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1057/s41599-026-09497-7

Keywords: Cancer, medicines, assessment, funding, Finland, contextual, judgement, institutional, boundaries, multi-channel, system, scientific research