The scale of early exposure documented in the review underscores why researchers consider this gap urgent. Citing data from the Australian Online Safety Commissioner, the authors note that 94 percent of Australian children encounter the internet by age four, while the Australian National Child Health Poll reports that one-third of Australian preschoolers own a tablet or smartphone, with weekly screen time ranging from fourteen hours for infants to twenty-six hours for children aged two to five. Comparable patterns appear across the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia. These figures collide with clinical guidance: the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends limiting entertainment screen time to under one hour per day for children aged two to five and discouraging any screen exposure for those younger than two. Even critics who consider such limits unrealistic, the review observes, agree on the need for a structured framework to guide young children’s digital media use, and on the centrality of adults, parents, caregivers, and educators in providing it.

The conceptual backbone of the analysis is the idea that so-called digital natives possess intuitive fluency with devices but not the ethical awareness or self-regulation to navigate them responsibly. Drawing on Ribble’s widely used framework, the authors define digital citizenship as the evolving norms of appropriate, responsible, and authorized technology use, spanning nine elements that include digital access, commerce, communication and collaboration, etiquette, fluency, health and well-being, law, rights and responsibilities, and security and privacy. Young children, the review stresses, often lack the awareness to use digital tools ethically or to grasp the consequences of their online behavior, exposing them unknowingly to inappropriate content, privacy loss, cyberbullying, identity theft, and racist material. Because early childhood is also a period of rapid development in executive function and self-regulation, the authors argue it is a pivotal window: as with health behaviors, earlier education in digital literacy tends to produce better lifelong habits.

Methodologically, the study followed the PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews, searching ProQuest Education, Web of Science, EBSCOhost, APA PsycInfo, ERIC, and Google Scholar for literature published through May 2024. Keywords were organized into two categories joined by the Boolean operator AND: child-related terms such as child*, preschool, and kindergarten, paired with the phrase digital citizenship. The initial search returned 385 records; after 109 duplicates were removed, titles and abstracts were screened independently by two researchers, producing 54 potentially eligible articles. Full-text assessment against criteria requiring English language, peer-review publication, focus on digital citizenship for children aged zero to eight, and inclusion of key stakeholders such as children, parents, and educators narrowed the pool to 23 studies, supplemented by four additional papers identified through snowballing. Inter-rater reliability, measured with Cohen’s Kappa, reached 0.82, indicating strong agreement between the independent coders.

The review’s first research question, concerning which strategies actually cultivate digital citizenship skills in this age group, yielded a clear hierarchy of approaches. The single most effective and developmentally appropriate strategy, the analysis concluded, is integration: embedding themes of online safety, media literacy, and ethical behavior into core academic subjects rather than isolating them. Evidence cited includes the I-LEARN digital literacy curriculum, which helped kindergartners locate, interpret, and evaluate information sources; the Lyrics2Learn program, whose rhythmic, media-rich lessons reinforced reading accuracy, fluency, and prosody while nurturing ethical engagement in digital spaces; and an intervention combining personalized print texts with app-based activities that improved comprehension among children from low-income families. A weekly digitally enhanced mathematics curriculum further demonstrated that frequent, strategically integrated digital activities build skills more durably than one-off instructional sessions, echoing developmental learning theory’s emphasis on repeated, contextualized exposure.

Gamified and collaborative formats emerged as the second major pillar. The review highlights Minecraft as an unexpectedly powerful vehicle: when children engage in collaborative construction and game design within the virtual three-D environment, they practice teamwork, digital communication, programming logic, and critical thinking, with information literacy principles and ethical digital behavior embedded naturally in the gameplay rather than lectured separately. Storytelling applications requiring active listening and narrative responses similarly supported vocabulary and comprehension in preschoolers. Complementary work on co-creation showed that when children participate in producing digital content rather than merely consuming it, they develop a sense of ownership and responsibility that researchers consider foundational to citizenship. Personalization formed the third pillar: grade-specific lesson plans such as those in the Common Sense Education curriculum, culturally responsive approaches grounded in family norms and socioeconomic realities documented in India, specialized experiential models for children with intellectual disabilities, and attention to gender dynamics in children’s platform interactions all signaled that effective digital citizenship instruction must be tailored, not uniform.

Parents, the review finds, exert influence through two distinct mediation styles whose effects differ meaningfully. Restrictive mediation, setting designated screen periods and family internet rules, appears frequently, and one recommended instrument is the family charter, a negotiated document outlining instructions and deadlines for device use. Supervision demonstrably reduces unsafe use, while unsupervised internet use increases risk. But restriction alone, the authors conclude, is insufficient for building critical digital competencies. Active mediation, in which parents model responsible behavior, co-use devices with their children, hold open conversations about online experiences, teach privacy awareness, and discourage personal data sharing, showed particular promise in fostering critical thinking, self-regulation, and responsible behavior. Consistent with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory and Bandura’s social learning theory, children learn digital conduct largely by observing adults, meaning parents must themselves exhibit the balanced habits they wish to instill. Educational meetings and workshops that raise parents’ conceptual awareness of digital citizenship were flagged as urgently needed supports.

Educators occupy an equally consequential but unevenly prepared role. Rather than treating digital citizenship as a discrete subject, effective early childhood teachers integrate its foundations into routine interactions, often anchoring them in social-emotional learning competencies such as self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness, and responsible decision-making. Practical techniques documented in the literature include digital storytelling tools, interactive whiteboards, multimedia platforms modeling respectful interaction, and structured role-play scenarios simulating everyday digital experiences like photo sharing and virtual collaboration. In dialogic learning environments, children articulate their reasoning, evaluate the impact of digital behaviors, and collaboratively resolve digital dilemmas, cultivating the agency and empathy that characterize responsible digital citizens. Yet implementation remains inconsistent: although many educators feel personally confident with technology, some hesitate to bring it into early learning settings over fears it will dominate children’s experience or inhibit social development, and a survey cited in the review found that approximately one-third of kindergarten through fifth-grade teachers reported not addressing digital citizenship competencies at all.

The structural remedy the authors propose is professional development grounded in evidence that teachers’ digital competence is directly related to their perceptions and self-efficacy. Seminars introducing practical classroom technologies, programs strengthening educators’ beliefs in their own instructional capability, and training in modeling appropriate technology use, managing digital identities, and protecting student privacy all follow from the review’s synthesis. Cultural and contextual responsiveness runs through the recommendations as well: studies from India and Thailand demonstrate that successful interventions are rooted in children’s lived experiences and community norms, and the authors suggest creative examples such as a virtual world tour festival that teaches geography alongside cultural appreciation. For inclusive education, children with disabilities and marginalized groups require tailored strategies extending beyond cognitive development to questions of equity and representation.

The review closes with candid limitations and a forward agenda. It included only peer-reviewed journal articles, potentially excluding insights from conference proceedings and manuals; article selection, though independently double-coded, involved a small evidence base lacking a standardized appraisal process; and the search window closed in May 2024. Notably, the authors identify the absence of critical resistance approaches, teaching children not merely to comply with digital norms but to question and challenge digital content and systems, as a significant gap in early childhood digital citizenship education. They call for future research to develop context-sensitive curricula co-designed with families, educators, and community organizations, to broaden the evidentiary scope beyond older school-age children, and to equip both parents and teachers with the resources and confidence to prepare the youngest users of the internet for a digital world they already inhabit.

For decades, the role of media in childhood development has oscillated between being seen as a villain and a hero. Parents often grapple with the challenge of determining how much screen time is appropriate, while educators aim to integrate suitable media into their teaching styles. Izuagie’s study endeavors to unravel these complexities, presenting nuanced insights into how targeted media can serve as a catalyst for emotional intelligence in early childhood settings.

A mixed-methods approach was employed in this study, which combines quantitative data and qualitative observations, providing a robust framework for understanding the intricate dynamics at play. By assessing various media types—ranging from educational cartoons to interactive apps—the study seeks to discern their unique contributions towards enhancing children’s emotional and social skills. Through surveys and direct observations of children’s interactions, the research investigates patterns in emotional expression and peer relationships closely linked to media consumption.

One of the standout findings of this research is the significant impact that well-crafted educational media has on young children’s emotional literacy. This term refers to the ability to identify, understand, and manage one’s own emotions, as well as the capacity to empathize with others. Izuagie proposes that exposure to educational media specifically designed with SEL principles can markedly enhance children’s ability to navigate emotional challenges and foster positive interactions with peers.

Moreover, the research highlights the importance of context in determining how media influences social-emotional learning. For instance, the communal viewing of educational programs at home or in classrooms serves to enhance relational dynamics among children. It offers them shared experiences that form the bedrock of empathy and collaborative play. These findings challenge the simplistic notion that media consumption is intrinsically dangerous; rather, the implication is that the quality and context of media interactions matter significantly.

In addition, the research emphasizes the essential role of guidance from adults when children engage with media. It suggests that discussions initiated by caregivers or educators around the themes presented in the media can deepen children’s understanding and facilitate richer emotional learning experiences. This heroic role of the adult emphasizes the need for active engagement rather than passive consumption of media.

Nevertheless, the study does not shy away from addressing the potential pitfalls associated with media consumption among young children. It discusses scenarios where inappropriate or non-educational media can lead to adverse outcomes, such as increased aggression or social withdrawal. Such insights serve as a clarion call for parents and educators to be discerning about the media children are exposed to.

Interestingly, Izuagie’s research also opens up discussions about the role of culture in shaping the interactions between children and media. The Nigerian context in which this study was undertaken positions it uniquely, suggesting that cultural backgrounds significantly inform how children interpret and interact with media. This cultural lens is crucial to developing educational resources that are both relevant and effective for diverse populations.

The findings not only hold water for Nigerian contexts but also resonate on a global scale, where multi-cultural elements are increasingly becoming a staple of educational content. Thus, the implications of this study stretch beyond academic research, providing vital insights for policymakers and media producers aiming to create impactful educational tools for children worldwide.

As schools and parents face the dual challenge of integrating technology while fostering emotional intelligence, Izuagie’s work serves as a significant resource. It urges a shift toward a more balanced approach where technology is not viewed merely as a substitute for traditional learning, but as a complementary tool that, when utilized appropriately, can enhance differing aspects of emotional and social learning.

As we continue to navigate our increasingly digital world, Izuagie’s research offers a roadmap for parents, educators, and policy makers to foster environments that nurture emotional intelligence. The integration of high-quality media into early childhood education can forge pathways for children, extending far beyond mere academic achievement and into the realms of emotional resilience, empathy, and social connectivity.

In conclusion, the study by Izuagie encapsulates the pressing need to reevaluate how media is approached in the context of early childhood education. As the research illuminates the productive coexistence of media and social-emotional learning, it passionately advocates for well-structured strategies that harness the potential of media to better prepare children for a complex world.

The discourse surrounding this research will surely pave the way for future inquiries into the field of early education and media influence, setting the stage for a new era where mindful media engagement becomes integral to the development of well-rounded, emotionally intelligent children.

Subject of Research: The influence of media on social-emotional learning in preschool-aged children.

Article Title: Media and Social-Emotional Learning in 3–6-Year-Olds: A Mixed-Methods Study in Nigeria.

Article References:
Izuagie, L.E. Media and Social-Emotional Learning in 3–6-Year-Olds: A Mixed-Methods Study in Nigeria.
IJEC (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-025-00469-7

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-025-00469-7

Keywords: media, social-emotional learning, preschool, emotional intelligence, education, Nigeria, mixed-methods research.