The economic and historical footprint of the disease is staggering. Wheat head blight was first documented in England in 1884, first reported in the United States in Indiana in 1891, and first erupted in China’s Anhui and Jiangsu provinces in 1936. Between 2000 and 2018, the disease affected more than four million hectares annually in China, roughly 23 percent of the country’s total wheat area, with average annual yield losses exceeding 3.41 million tons. In the United States, epidemics that began sweeping the country in the early 1990s accumulated more than 17 billion dollars in economic losses between 1993 and 2014. South America, Europe and Africa all suffer significant losses as well, and the review’s authors, led by Haigang Ma and Hongxiang Ma of Yangzhou University, argue that climate change and shifting crop rotations are making epidemics more frequent, which makes improving breeding efficiency an urgent priority.

A central insight of the review is that resistance to Fusarium head blight in wheat is a polygenic quantitative trait shaped by many genes, each contributing a small effect, and that no immune source or gene conferring complete resistance has ever been identified. Instead, researchers classify resistance into five types. Type I resistance prevents initial infection, blocking spore germination, hyphal spread across spikelet surfaces, and penetration through stomata or wounds. It can be assessed by spraying spore suspensions onto spikes at anthesis and counting diseased spikelets, although in uncontrolled field conditions it is difficult to separate from other resistance types, and no variety with complete type I resistance has been found.

Type II resistance, the most intensively studied category, inhibits the spread of symptoms within the spike by preventing the pathogen from moving from an infected spikelet into the rachis and from the rachis into neighboring spikelets. It is measured with the classic single floret inoculation method, in which spores are injected into central florets and the percentage of symptomatic spikelets is scored. Highly resistant varieties score below five percent, while highly susceptible ones can reach 100 percent. The fungus’s spread depends heavily on virulence factors, most famously the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol, known as DON or vomitoxin. Mutant strains of F. graminearum that cannot synthesize DON can still infect inoculated florets but fail to spread within spikelets, and DON also triggers hydrogen peroxide production and cell death in wheat leaves, helping the pathogen shift from a biotrophic to a necrotrophic lifestyle. A linear octapeptide called fusaoctaxin A, secreted during late infection, contributes to spread in a similar fashion.

Type III resistance was originally defined as resistance to kernel infection but has been redefined as kernel resistance to mycotoxin accumulation, a critical food safety trait because trichothecenes and zearalenone contaminate grain and are difficult to decompose, causing vomiting and food refusal in humans and livestock. Type IV resistance concerns the proportion of Fusarium-damaged kernels in the harvest, though the review notes that low damaged-kernel counts can also result from the other resistance types, so its definition requires further deliberation. Type V resistance refers to tolerance of yield loss, assessed by comparing yield reductions between diseased and healthy plants of the same variety, and it remains similarly under-studied. Intriguingly, resistant varieties show a significant positive correlation between disease severity and DON levels, while susceptible and moderately susceptible varieties do not, meaning that moderately resistant varieties cannot automatically be assumed to accumulate less toxin.

The review connects these classical resistance types to the modern two-tier model of plant immunity, pattern-triggered immunity and effector-triggered immunity. Pattern-recognition receptors on the cell membrane detect conserved fungal molecules such as chitin, while intracellular nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptors recognize pathogen effectors. Evidence that this framework operates in wheat is compelling: overexpressing the chitin receptor CERK1 from Haynaldia villosa, Arabidopsis, or wheat itself in the susceptible variety Fielder activates chitin signalling and boosts head blight resistance. Yet the review emphasizes that the two major cloned resistance genes, Fhb1 and Fhb7, appear to work through mechanisms that are genuinely distinctive.

Fhb1 is the most celebrated resistance locus in wheat, and its story has just taken a decisive turn. Two candidate genes were cloned at the locus, PFT, encoding a pore-forming toxin-like protein, and HRC, encoding a histidine-rich calcium-binding protein. Mounting evidence now supports HRC as the causative gene, and a recent study using extensive wheat lines with or without PFT showed that PFT inherently fails to confer resistance and does not even contribute to HRC-mediated resistance. The mechanistic picture is remarkable: the resistant and susceptible HRC haplotypes differ only in the first 21 amino acids at the N-terminus, and both proteins form condensates in the nucleus through liquid-liquid phase separation. The resistant haplotype, carrying two cysteines, has a weaker propensity for phase separation. DON triggers condensation of the susceptible protein but not the resistant one, promoting cell death in floral organs and the rachis. Because most HRC-interacting proteins participate in messenger RNA splicing, the susceptible variant drives greater alternative splicing efficiency after infection, potentially determining susceptibility. The authors flag open questions, including whether the resistant haplotype’s deletion mutation is a loss or gain of function, whether its transcript is actually translated, and why Fhb1 sometimes fails to confer resistance in certain genetic backgrounds, with two inhibitory loci identified so far.

Fhb7 tells an even more exotic tale. The gene was transferred into wheat from two wild relatives, the diploid Thinopyrum elongatum and the decaploid Th. ponticum, and it encodes a glutathione S-transferase with an exceptional ability to detoxify trichothecenes including DON. DON normally invades multiple cellular compartments and binds the aminoacyl site of the eukaryotic ribosome’s large subunit, blocking peptidyl transferase and halting protein synthesis. The crystal structure of Fhb7-GST reveals a two-domain architecture, an N-terminal glutathione-binding G site similar to other GSTs and a variable C-terminal H site whose flexible loop between two alpha helices is instrumental in recognizing DON. Using glutathione as a cofactor, the enzyme specifically opens DON’s highly toxic and chemically inert C12/C13 epoxy group, converting the toxin into a nontoxic glutathione-DON adduct. Because a few key residues drive catalysis, the authors suggest that CRISPR/Cas engineering could produce versions with even greater detoxification activity. Notably, Fhb7-GST transcription is strongly induced by DON, hinting at an unknown wheat cell signalling pathway that likely involves a DON-responsive transcription activator binding the gene’s promoter, and the review argues that resistance at the Fhb7 locus is multi-layered, involving additional genes and a reorganization of native gene expression after infection.

The review also spotlights an underexplored frontier: susceptibility genes. Experiments with ditelosomic lines of Chinese Spring wheat carrying various chromosome arm deletions showed large differences in susceptibility, implying the wheat genome harbors not only resistance genes but also susceptibility genes or resistance suppressors. A susceptibility factor has been mapped to the short arm of chromosome 7A, and the susceptible HRC haplotype itself behaves as a quintessential susceptibility gene, since knocking it out with gene editing in some susceptible varieties produces resistant wheat. Given the scarcity of resistance genes, identifying and modifying susceptibility genes may offer a powerful complementary strategy.

On breeding, the authors distill three principal strategies. Deploying Fhb1 or Fhb7 alone, or stacking minor resistance genes, lifts susceptible varieties to moderately susceptible or moderately resistant levels. Fhb1 in global varieties traces back to at least two donors, the famous Chinese variety Sumai3, developed in 1970 from a cross of Funo and Taiwanxiaomai, whose resistance came from the landrace Taiwanxiaomai, and Ningmai9, released in 1997, whose Fhb1 derives from the Japanese variety Norin129 and ultimately, genetic analysis suggests, from Chinese landraces. Sumai3 remains a parent rather than a commercial variety because of tall stature and poor yield, while thirty moderately resistant varieties descend from the agronomically superior Ningmai9. Fhb7 alleles have been bred into high-yielding backgrounds, producing Shannong48 in 2021, which also carries carotenoid-rich grain from the linked PSY-E2 gene until markers broke that linkage, and Zhongke166 and Zhongke1878 released in 2022 and 2024. Pyramiding Fhb1 or Fhb7 with minor genes achieves moderate to high resistance, exemplified by Yangmai33, released in 2021 with resistance comparable to Sumai3, and by the new germplasm Yangnongmai158. Combining Fhb1 and Fhb7, whose mechanisms are distinct but synergistic, yields even higher resistance, though a fully commercial variety carrying both has yet to be released. The authors conclude that cloning the remaining minor-effect genes, exploiting chromosome segment substitution lines and falling sequencing costs, characterizing susceptibility genes, and balancing resistance against yield, which are usually antagonistic traits, will define the next chapter, because with a capricious climate and a shifting pathogen population, breeding for head blight resistance remains an ongoing challenge.

Subject of Research: Genetic resistance mechanisms and breeding strategies for Fusarium head blight in wheat

Article Title: Wheat resistance to Fusarium head blight and breeding strategies

Article References: Ma, H., Liu, Y., Zhang, S., Sha, J., Sun, Y., Hu, Z., Gong, L., Dai, Y., Gao, Y., Wang, Y., & Ma, H. (2025). Wheat resistance to Fusarium head blight and breeding strategies. Crop Health, 3(1), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44297-025-00048-1

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44297-025-00048-1

Keywords: wheat, Fusarium head blight, Fhb1, Fhb7, deoxynivalenol, plant breeding, disease resistance, mycotoxins, quantitative trait loci, susceptibility genes, gene editing, Sumai3