The study’s reliance on structural equation modelling reflects a broader methodological shift in educational psychology research, where researchers increasingly move beyond simple correlation to examine how multiple psychological constructs operate together within a single explanatory system. In this case, the modelling approach allowed the research team to estimate three distinct pathways simultaneously: the direct association between students’ perceptions of career guidance and their readiness for employment, the association between guidance and adaptability, and the association between adaptability and readiness. By estimating these pathways together, the analysis could distinguish between the portion of the guidance-readiness relationship that operates through students’ psychological resources and the portion that operates independently of them. The use of bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples is a widely accepted technique for testing indirect effects because it does not assume that the sampling distribution of the indirect effect follows a normal shape, which is often unrealistic for mediation products. This gives additional confidence that the reported indirect effect of 0.194, with a confidence interval that excludes zero, is unlikely to be a statistical artefact.

The proportion of the total association accounted for by career adaptability, approximately 51.3%, is a substantively meaningful figure rather than merely a statistical one. It suggests that roughly half of the reason students who perceive stronger career guidance also report stronger transition readiness can be traced to the way guidance appears to cultivate adaptability itself. The remaining half operates through other channels that were not modelled, which could include practical mechanisms such as exposure to employer networks, access to labour-market information, development of job-search skills, or simply the reassurance students derive from knowing their institution takes their futures seriously. The authors are careful not to overclaim about these unmeasured channels, and their restraint is appropriate given the cross-sectional design, which captures a single point in time and cannot establish the direction of influence between variables.

The choice of Career Construction Theory as the primary interpretive lens deserves attention from readers unfamiliar with the framework. Developed by Mark Savickas, the theory proposes that individuals build their careers through a lifelong process of imposing meaning on vocational experiences, and that this process depends on a set of psychological resources known collectively as career adaptability. These resources are typically described as comprising four dimensions: concern about the future, control over one’s vocational situation, curiosity about possible paths, and confidence in pursuing chosen goals. Although the published abstract does not detail how the adaptability measure was subdivided, the theory’s application in a Nigerian vocational-education context is notable because most prior tests of the framework have been conducted in North America, Europe, and East Asia, where institutional structures for career support differ considerably from those in Sub-Saharan African public universities. Finding associations consistent with the theory in South-East Nigeria therefore extends the geographic and cultural reach of the evidence base, though the authors appropriately frame this as consistency rather than proof.

The complementary discussion of Social Cognitive Career Theory introduces an important conceptual distinction. That framework, associated with Robert Lent and Steven Brown, emphasises self-efficacy, the belief in one’s capability to perform specific vocational tasks, and outcome expectations, the anticipated consequences of performing those tasks, as the principal drivers of career-related behaviour. The authors acknowledge that these mechanisms were not directly measured in their study, which is an honest limitation. It means that while the data are compatible with a social-cognitive interpretation, in which career guidance might boost students’ efficacy beliefs and thereby their readiness, the study cannot confirm that such a pathway exists. Readers should therefore treat the two theoretical frameworks as offering different but potentially compatible accounts of the same observed pattern, with the mediation through adaptability being the only pathway actually tested.

The sample of 178 final-year students drawn from four public universities represents a multi-institutional design, which the authors identify as a strength given the scarcity of such evidence in Nigerian and Sub-Saharan African contexts. Multi-site sampling reduces the risk that findings reflect the peculiarities of a single institution, such as an unusually well-funded counselling centre or a particularly engaged faculty. At the same time, the sample size imposes practical limits on the complexity of the statistical models that can be estimated with stability, and the authors’ use of adapted multi-item questionnaire measures suggests an effort to balance contextual relevance with psychometric rigour. The reporting of effect sizes, including the R-squared value of 0.260 for the adaptability model, indicates that perceived career guidance accounts for roughly a quarter of the variability in students’ adaptability, leaving the majority attributable to other influences such as personal experiences, family background, peer networks, or individual differences in personality.

The direct association between perceived career guidance and transition readiness, while statistically significant, is notably smaller than the association between adaptability and readiness. The standardised coefficient of 0.19 for guidance contrasts with 0.38 for adaptability, suggesting that students’ internal psychological resources may be more tightly bound to their sense of readiness than the external support they receive. This pattern carries a practical implication: institutional career services may be most effective not merely by providing information directly, but by fostering the adaptive capacities that students then carry into their job search. However, the cross-sectional design means this interpretation remains provisional, since it is equally plausible that students who already feel ready for employment perceive their university’s guidance more favourably, or that some unmeasured third factor influences both perceptions and readiness.

The ethical procedures described in the study reflect standard expectations for human-subjects research. Approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, serving as lead-institution clearance for the multi-site study, and written informed consent was secured from all participants. The voluntary nature of participation and the right to withdraw without penalty are consistent with the principles of the Helsinki Declaration. These procedural details, while administrative, matter for the credibility of findings in educational research, where surveys of students by their own instructors or institutions can raise subtle concerns about coercion or social desirability in responses.

The publication of this work as open access under a Creative Commons Attribution licence means that the full text, including the supplementary material, is freely available to practitioners, policymakers, and researchers across the region and beyond. This accessibility is particularly relevant for the study’s stated audiences of educational psychologists, career counsellors, higher education institutions, and policymakers interested in graduate employability within Nigerian vocational programmes. Open licensing permits adaptation of the findings into local guidance documents, training materials, or policy briefs without permission barriers, provided appropriate credit is given.

The timing of the research within the Nigerian higher-education landscape is worth considering. Final-year vocational and technical education students in public universities have in recent years experienced disruptions to academic calendars, including industrial action affecting lecturers, which has been documented in related Nigerian research on student readiness. Such disruptions can compress the time available for career preparation activities and may heighten the importance of whatever guidance students do receive. Although the present study does not examine strike effects directly, its focus on final-year students captures a population whose transition window is inherently narrow and whose perceptions of institutional support are formed under these conditions.

Vocational and technical education occupies a distinctive position within Nigerian higher education because it is explicitly oriented toward practical skills and employment outcomes, in contrast to more academically oriented degree programmes. This orientation makes the school-to-work transition a central rather than peripheral concern for VTE students and their institutions. The finding that perceived career guidance is associated with readiness in this population suggests that even within programmes already designed for employability, the quality of career support as students experience it remains consequential. It also implies that the psychological resources measured by career adaptability are relevant even for students whose technical training might be assumed to speak for itself in the labour market.

The authors’ declaration of no competing interests and no specific funding indicates that the research was conducted without commercial or financial pressures that might shape the framing of results. The corresponding authorship arrangement, with correspondence directed to the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, reflects the collaborative structure of the team, which spans two institutions in Ebonyi and Enugu States. The early-release status of the article, shared to provide faster access to peer-reviewed accepted research, means that the version available is citable with a permanent DOI but remains subject to further editorial refinement before the final Version of Record replaces it.

For readers seeking to situate this study within the wider literature, the related content highlighted by the publisher includes work on artificial intelligence-driven career guidance comparing Nigerian undergraduate and postgraduate perceptions, retrospective assessment of academic and psychological readiness of final-year technical and vocational education students after the 2022 Academic Staff Union of Universities strike, and research linking career construction styles to career adaptability among university students through canonical correlation analysis. Together, these publications indicate a growing body of Nigerian scholarship examining how institutional support, psychological resources, and external disruptions interact to shape student outcomes, within which the present study adds multi-institutional structural evidence on the guidance-adaptability-readiness pathway.

The keywords attached to the article, including perceived university career guidance, career adaptability, school-to-work transition readiness, vocational and technical education, graduate employability, and career construction theory, signal its intended discoverability across both psychological and educational audiences. For practitioners, the most actionable reading of the findings is that career guidance provision appears associated with student outcomes both directly and through the cultivation of adaptability, implying that guidance programmes might be evaluated not only by the services they deliver but by the adaptive capacities they develop in students. For researchers, the study offers a template for testing theoretical mediation pathways in contexts where such evidence has been scarce, while its limitations regarding cross-sectional inference and unmeasured social-cognitive mechanisms mark clear directions for future longitudinal and multi-method work.

Subject of Research: …

Article Title: Perceived university career guidance, career adaptability, and school-to-work transition readiness among vocational and technical education students in South-East Nigeria

Article References: Okpara, C. M., Okonkwo, C. C., Igu, O. F., Mong, I. K., Ojemuyide, C. C., & Onwumere, M. (2026). Perceived university career guidance, career adaptability, and school-to-work transition readiness among vocational and technical education students in South-East Nigeria. Discover Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44202-026-00917-y

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44202-026-00917-y

Keywords: career guidance, career adaptability, school-to-work transition, vocational education, Nigeria, graduate employability, structural equation modelling, career construction theory, higher education, psychology, Perceived, university