The scale of the problem motivating the study is difficult to overstate. The impact of mass incarceration extends far beyond the isolated experiences of justice-involved individuals; the authors describe a reaching, multifactorial impact on the health of society as a whole. People who cycle through carceral facilities frequently return to communities with untreated chronic disease, unmanaged psychiatric illness, and histories of disrupted care. Healthcare providers must therefore be prepared to treat patients returning from prisons and jails, whether in emergency departments, primary care clinics, or community mental health settings. Unfortunately, as the research team notes, health professional programs often lack any correctional medicine curriculum whatsoever, leaving graduates to encounter this population with little preparation and, in some cases, with unexamined biases.

Bridges to Access was conceived as a direct response to that curricular vacuum. Organized as an interdisciplinary conference, the event brought together learners and practitioners from multiple health professions to learn about the effects of incarceration on mental health and overall health. The conference pursued three distinct educational objectives: to demonstrate the importance of education in correctional medicine, to illuminate the interplay of mental illness and incarceration, and to highlight the role healthcare providers can have in impacting change within justice-involved patient populations. Rather than targeting a single discipline, the event was designed to reach medical students, nursing learners, and other future professionals whose careers would intersect with justice-involved patients in different ways.

To measure whether the conference actually worked, the research team employed a pre- and post-conference survey design built around sixteen Likert-response styled questions. Each item assessed participants’ knowledge and perceptions of correctional healthcare, with responses anchored to specific numerical values so that quantifiable change could be detected. Participants completed the same instrument before and after the event, and their paired responses were averaged for each question before analysis. The investigators then applied a paired t-test to compare mean pre- and post-conference responses, setting statistical significance at a p-value of less than 0.05. This straightforward but rigorous design allowed the team to evaluate whether observed changes in attitude and knowledge exceeded what would be expected by chance alone.

The results were striking. One hundred and twenty-three participants completed both the pre- and post-conference surveys, providing a substantial analytic sample for an educational intervention study. Fourteen of the sixteen questions demonstrated statistically significant improvement with a p-value below 0.05. Statistical analysis, the authors conclude, demonstrated that the conference was an effective educational tool, and survey participants showed significant growth in their understanding of each of the three conference objectives. In practical terms, attendees left the event measurably better informed about why correctional medicine belongs in health professional education, how mental illness and incarceration reinforce one another, and what providers can do to advocate for justice-involved patients.

The findings arrive at a moment of growing national attention to carceral health. Incarceration rates in the United States remain among the highest in the world, and the transition between custody and community is widely recognized as a period of elevated risk, including elevated risks of overdose, psychiatric crisis, and preventable hospitalization. When clinicians understand the structural realities that shape their patients’ lives, such as interrupted prescriptions, stigma attached to incarceration histories, and limited access to continuity of care, they are better positioned to screen appropriately, coordinate transitions, and communicate without judgment. Educational interventions like Bridges to Access aim to seed exactly this kind of structural literacy early in professional training, before habits of practice and patterns of bias harden.

The methodological architecture of the study also illustrates how educational outcomes can be evaluated with the same statistical discipline applied to clinical interventions. By pairing each Likert response with a numerical value and subjecting averaged pre- and post-responses to paired t-tests, the investigators converted subjective self-assessments into analyzable data. The paired design is particularly important because each participant serves as their own control, reducing confounding from differences in baseline knowledge across attendees. That fourteen of sixteen items reached significance suggests the effect was broad rather than confined to a single domain of understanding, though the two items that did not reach significance are a reminder that not every perception shifts equally in response to a brief educational exposure.

The authors are candid about the limits of what a single conference can accomplish. Due to a lack of peer-reviewed literature addressing this topic, alongside several limitations inherent to the study design, they write that further research is required to establish best practices for correctional medicine education. Self-reported survey responses capture perceptions of knowledge rather than demonstrated clinical competence, and the durability of gains measured immediately after a conference remains an open question. The study itself was conducted under a minimal-risk exempt framework, evaluated by the investigators under federal regulations for exempt research, with written and oral consent processes for participants, and the event was free and open to the public, which broadens access but also introduces selection considerations typical of volunteer educational audiences.

Even with those caveats, the study carries a clear message for medical and health professions education: gaps in future clinicians’ understanding of justice-related healthcare are not immutable, and they can be measurably narrowed with targeted, interdisciplinary effort. As the justice-involved population continues to interface with mainstream healthcare systems, the demand for clinicians who can deliver equitable, informed, and humane care will only grow. Bridges to Access offers a replicable model, and its authors’ call for further research signals that this conference is best understood not as a finished solution but as the opening move in what will need to be a sustained, evidence-driven expansion of correctional medicine across the curricula that train tomorrow’s healthcare professionals.

Subject of Research: Educational intervention for future healthcare professionals' understanding of justice-related and correctional healthcare

Article Title: Bridging gaps in future healthcare professionals’ understanding of justice-related healthcare

Article References: Bridging gaps in future healthcare professionals’ understanding of justice-related healthcare. (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-026-15453-7

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s12913-026-15453-7

Keywords: medical education, correctional medicine, incarceration, health equity, interdisciplinary education, mental illness, justice-involved patients, curriculum, health services research, BMC Health Services Research, Bridging, gaps

Chordomas generally originate from remnants of the notochord, a structure that is crucial during embryonic development. The most common locations for these tumors include the sacrococcygeal region and the base of the skull. However, when presenting in pediatric cases, chordomas often exhibit a more aggressive behavior compared to their adult counterparts. This distinction is important for clinicians because it can influence treatment strategies. Recognizing the varied morphological features and biological behavior of chordomas lays the groundwork for improved patient outcomes.

One of the critical advancements in understanding pediatric chordomas is the classification of their subtypes. The poorly differentiated subtype is particularly notorious for its aggressive nature and poor prognosis. This subtype often lacks the classic features associated with more differentiated chordomas, making it challenging to identify. Its misdiagnosis can lead to under-treatment or inappropriate management strategies, emphasizing the necessity for heightened vigilance in diagnostic processes among practitioners.

The implications of correctly diagnosing the poorly differentiated subtype of pediatric chordoma extend beyond individual patient care. With better diagnostic accuracy, healthcare professionals can tailor treatment modalities, possibly incorporating more aggressive surgical and adjuvant therapies that may improve survival rates. However, this requires a collaborative effort among radiologists, pathologists, and oncologists to ensure that all facets of this complex condition are addressed comprehensively.

Emerging imaging techniques have significantly enhanced the ability to visualize chordomas in children, contributing to more accurate diagnosis and characterization. Advanced modalities such as MRI and PET scans provide detailed information about the tumor’s location, size, and metabolic activity, facilitating appropriate treatment planning. Furthermore, understanding the behavioral patterns associated with different chordoma variants can guide clinicians in predicting potential tumor spread and recurrence.

Research has also highlighted the molecular underpinnings of chordomas, uncovering specific genetic mutations and alterations that are prevalent within these tumors. These insights have opened new avenues for targeted therapies, which could prove effective in managing the disease. The importance of this research cannot be overstated, as it fuels the quest for novel treatment options while reinforcing the need for personalized approaches to care in pediatric oncology.

In light of these developments, it is essential that pediatricians and oncologists stay abreast of the latest findings related to chordomas. Continuing medical education and specialized training can ensure that healthcare professionals are equipped with the knowledge necessary to discern the nuances of pediatric chordoma diagnosis and treatment. Collaborative research efforts may also bridge the gaps in understanding, ultimately leading to better clinical outcomes.

It is critical to raise awareness and provide education about the existence and implications of the poorly differentiated subtype among medical professionals worldwide. Misunderstandings can lead to disparate treatment methodologies, exacerbating patient challenges and hindering the efficiency of healthcare systems. By fostering a culture of knowledge-sharing and interdisciplinary collaboration, the medical community can better tackle the complexities associated with pediatric chordoma.

Additionally, the conversation surrounding pediatric chordomas should extend beyond the clinical realm. Advocacy groups play a vital role in providing support to affected families and raising public awareness about these tumors. By sharing patient stories and educating communities, these organizations can drive funding towards research and improve access to cutting-edge treatments.

In conclusion, the importance of recognizing the poorly differentiated subtype of pediatric chordoma cannot be understated. Furuta and Nakai’s response highlights a crucial dialogue within the medical literature about this rare condition and the pathways toward enhanced care and understanding. As our knowledge of chordomas grows, so too does the responsibility of healthcare providers to implement this information into their practice, ensuring that young patients receive the best possible care.

It is clear that pediatric chordomas are a domain requiring attention to detail, with implications that can resonate through various facets of patient care, research, and community awareness. As this conversation continues, collaboration and dedication to improving outcomes for affected children will be paramount.

Subject of Research: Pediatric chordoma and its poorly differentiated subtype

Article Title: Pediatric chordoma – the importance of recognizing the poorly differentiated subtype: Reply to Inarejos et al.

Article References:

Furuta, T., Nakai, Y. Pediatric chordoma – the importance of recognizing the poorly differentiated subtype: Reply to Inarejos et al.
Pediatr Radiol (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-026-06518-0

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 28 January, 2026

Keywords: pediatric chordoma, poorly differentiated subtype, diagnosis, treatment, collaboration, molecular research, imaging techniques, healthcare awareness, advocacy

The study, published in BMC Medical Education, sheds light on the alarming gaps in knowledge that exist among future healthcare providers. It emphasizes the importance of equipping medical students with the necessary tools and understanding related to prostate cancer screening. This initiative is crucial as these individuals will soon be at the forefront of patient education and healthcare delivery. Understanding the implications of early detection can be a game-changer for patient outcomes, particularly in a field where advancements in medical technology are rapidly evolving.

Prostate cancer remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related morbidity and mortality among men worldwide. The dramatic increase in prostate cancer cases in many countries highlights the urgency for effective screening programs and educational initiatives. Despite significant advancements in medical treatments, early detection through methods such as DRE and PSA testing is still one of the most effective strategies for improving survival rates and quality of life for patients diagnosed with this disease. The knowledge of these screening methods among those who will eventually treat these patients is paramount.

The researchers employed a mixed-methods approach, which comprised surveys and interviews to assess the knowledge levels of medical students on these screening methods. Initial findings revealed varying degrees of understanding regarding not only the technical aspects of DRE and PSA testing but also the underlying importance of these methods in the context of preventative health. The results shed light on the necessity of refining medical education curricula to include practical training, comprehensive case studies, and a focus on preventative care.

A concerning finding from the study indicates that a significant proportion of the participants possess limited knowledge of prostate cancer risk factors, the age at which screening should typically begin, and the interpretation of PSA levels. This knowledge gap can potentially lead to misinformation among patients and, consequently, delayed diagnoses and treatment. The researchers advocate for improved educational strategies that ensure future healthcare professionals are well-versed in the pertinent aspects of prostate cancer screening.

Furthermore, the emotional and psychological implications of discussing prostate cancer with patients also surfaced during the study. Medical students expressed discomfort in approaching the topic, which could stem from a lack of sufficient exposure and training. This hesitance is concerning, especially when considering the sensitive nature of prostate health discussions among male patients. The study highlights the need to create an academic environment that encourages open dialogue and training simulations to build confidence in discussing such critical topics with future patients.

The researchers suggest that integrating simulation-based learning and community outreach programs could improve medical education related to prostate cancer screening. Such initiatives enable students to practice patient interactions in a controlled environment, fostering skills that are essential in real-world scenarios. It is essential that medical schools recognize the value of creating comprehensive training modules aimed at increasing proficiency in this area, which may ultimately lead to better patient care.

Moreover, the study also analyzed the instructors’ role in shaping students’ perceptions and understanding of prostate cancer screening. Whether through lectures, workshops, or mentorship programs, educators are tasked with providing students with factual information and enhancing their critical thinking skills. The interactions between educators and students can significantly impact how upcoming healthcare professionals perceive various medical practices, including those related to cancer screening.

As conversations around men’s health continue to evolve, it becomes clear that educational institutions must adapt accordingly. Developing partnerships with organizations focused on men’s health can facilitate awareness campaigns that transcend the walls of medical schools, enabling students to engage with communities directly. This exposure can bolster their confidence and competence in discussing prostate cancer risk factors, screening methodologies, and the importance of early detection.

Importantly, the findings of this study resonate beyond Syria; they reflect a universal challenge faced in medical education that requires immediate attention. Prostate cancer screening knowledge should be incorporated into curricula on a global scale, ensuring new generations of physicians are adequately prepared. The implications of such strategic educational reforms could not only improve individual practice but also enhance public health outcomes on a wider scale.

The research team concludes with a call to action directed at both educational institutions and healthcare authorities highlighting the need for structured and nuanced educational approaches to empower future physicians. It is essential that these conversations continue to take place among academia, medical professionals, and policymakers alike. The collective effort can lead to an enriching educational experience that prepares students for the nuances of patient care, especially concerning sensitive topics like cancer screening.

In summary, this pivotal study serves as a wake-up call, underscoring the necessity for proactive educational reforms in the medical field. Through comprehensive curricula, robust training, and community engagement, we can equip future healthcare providers with the knowledge and skills necessary to advocate for effective prostate cancer screening practices. The journey toward improved health outcomes for men relies not just on advancements in technology but also on the unwavering commitment of medical educators and students to prioritize prevention and patient awareness.

Moving forward, embracing these changes will not only have profound implications for individual patients but also for the overall landscape of men’s health. It is a collective responsibility that demands urgent attention and action across the board in the pursuit of better healthcare for all.

Subject of Research: The level of knowledge regarding digital rectal examinations and prostate-specific antigen testing among Syrian medical students.

Article Title: Assessing digital rectal examination and prostate-specific antigen knowledge: a study of Syrian medical students’ knowledge for prostate cancer screening.

Article References:

Al-Shafie, M., Al-Bitar, A., Jouby, M. et al. Assessing digital rectal examination and prostate-specific antigen knowledge: a study of Syrian medical students’ knowledge for prostate cancer screening.
BMC Med Educ (2026). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-026-08636-7

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s12909-026-08636-7

Keywords: Prostate cancer, digital rectal examination, prostate-specific antigen, medical education, Syrian medical students, preventive healthcare.

Amputation remains a profound life-altering procedure for many patients, and it is essential that medical professionals feel equipped to handle the complexities that arise from such interventions. Many healthcare systems are placing greater emphasis on rehabilitation and patient-centered approaches to care after limb loss. The findings from this survey reflect a stark reality: while medical students may graduate with extensive knowledge of anatomy and surgical protocols, their practical exposure and confidence in managing amputee care are insufficient in preparing them for real-world challenges.

The study, conducted by an expert team led by Mahmood and involving a wide array of respondents from various UK medical schools, found that a significant number of students reported limited hands-on experiences with amputation procedures. The ramifications of such findings are distressing, both for the medical community and future patients. The lack of practical exposure betrays the necessity for institutional reforms within medical education to ensure that students are adequately prepared for the surgical and rehabilitative needs of amputee care.

The survey further explores the attitudes of these students towards their training, revealing an alarming level of uncertainty when it came to personal confidence in managing amputee care. This lack of confidence is perhaps understandable in light of empirical findings; however, it calls for immediate action from educational institutions to integrate more comprehensive amputee care training into their curricula. Students expressed a desire for increased training and exposure, which could positively correlate with greater levels of confidence and competence post-graduation.

Interestingly, the survey not only noted gaps in exposure to surgical techniques but also indicated a concerning lack of familiarity with the psychological and social dynamics that accompany amputations. Understanding the emotional impact of limb loss is critical for providing empathetic care and effective rehabilitation strategies. Consequently, this indicates a pressing need for a multi-disciplinary approach to medical education—one that encompasses not only surgical training but also the emotional and social aspects of patient care.

In addition, the findings stress the importance of mentorship and clinical placements that encourage active participation in surgical procedures related to amputations. Without direct involvement and guidance from experienced surgeons, students may struggle to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application. Institutions should consider fostering environments where students can observe and take part in surgical procedures, ensuring they are exposed to various amputation scenarios that they might face in practice.

The survey also calls into question the adequacy of current teaching methodologies utilized in medical schools across the UK. Traditional lectures and textbook learning may no longer suffice for complex subjects that require practical skills and emotional intelligence. Innovative teaching approaches, such as simulation and role-playing, could better prepare medical students for real-world challenges they will face once they enter clinics and hospitals.

Moreover, collaborating with external organizations specializing in limb rehabilitation and psychosocial support could enhance training modules, offering students insights and resources that are integral to comprehensive patient care. Building partnerships with these organizations would reinforce the idea that amputation is not solely a surgical event but a pivotal moment in a patient’s life that requires ongoing support and care.

Educational curriculum reform in this area could also benefit from involving patients themselves, allowing medical students to hear firsthand experiences from amputees. Through storytelling and patient engagement, students can develop a more profound understanding of the lived experiences of individuals with limb loss, which can translate into more compassionate care in their future practices.

Improving educational frameworks is not just beneficial for students; it also holds transformative potential for healthcare systems as a whole. Ultimately, if future healthcare professionals are better trained in amputee care, it may lead to improved patient outcomes, reduced anxiety around surgical procedures, and enhanced rehabilitation experiences for amputees.

In summary, the findings from Mahmood and colleagues’ survey have brought to light a critical need within UK medical education concerning amputations and amputee care. By addressing the gaps in exposure and confidence highlighted in this comprehensive study, medical schools can foster not just skilled surgeons, but compassionate, well-rounded practitioners who are prepared to meet the multifaceted needs of their patients. As such, this investigation represents a crucial step in redefining how we train the next generation of healthcare providers, ensuring they are better equipped to face the challenges of modern medicine.

In conclusion, collaborative efforts and reform in medical education regarding amputations and amputee care are required—for the sake of training capable healthcare providers and, ultimately, for enhancing the quality of life for those who undergo such significant life changes.

Subject of Research: Confidence and exposure of final-year medical students to amputations and amputee care.

Article Title: Undergraduate exposure and confidence to amputations and amputee care: a national survey of final-year UK medical students.

Article References:

Mahmood, A., Macdonald, H., Ali, I. et al. Undergraduate exposure and confidence to amputations and amputee care: a national survey of final-year UK medical students.
BMC Med Educ 25, 1658 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-08027-4

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-08027-4

Keywords: Amputation, Medical Education, Healthcare Training, Patient Care, Medical Students, Rehabilitation.

Dr. John McDermott, a distinguished NIHR Academic Clinical Lecturer at the University of Manchester, recently unveiled groundbreaking insights at the European Society of Human Genetics annual congress. His team, operating under the umbrella of the NHS-England Network of Excellence for Pharmacogenomics & Medicines Optimisation, has engineered an innovative framework that integrates patients’ genomic data directly into electronic health records (EHRs) across both general practitioner (GP) clinics and hospital settings. This seamless integration ensures that genetic information is available at the point of prescribing, enabling healthcare professionals to make safer and more effective medication choices regardless of where patients are in the health system.

What sets pharmacogenomics apart from traditional genetic investigations in rare diseases or oncology is its ubiquitous relevance throughout a patient’s lifetime. Unlike genetic markers that may only inform a diagnosis once, pharmacogenomic variants can influence the metabolism, efficacy, and toxicity profiles of a wide spectrum of commonly prescribed drugs every time a new prescription is considered. Despite this potential, many clinicians have lacked formal training in interpreting pharmacogenomic data, creating a bottleneck in its clinical application. Addressing this knowledge gap, McDermott’s team devised a novel informatics approach that delivers streamlined, context-sensitive guidance directly within clinicians’ existing electronic health record systems. This clever design respects the demanding clinical workflow, avoiding disruptions while presenting genetic insights as intuitive biomarkers much like renal function or liver enzyme levels.

The strength of this pioneering approach is its interoperability. It is compatible with multiple widely utilized genetic testing platforms and integrates smoothly with major healthcare record systems deployed in clinics worldwide. Such versatility means that clinicians are spared the challenge of dissecting raw genomic data. Instead, they receive actionable prescribing recommendations contextualized to the patient’s specific genetic profile and current medication regimen. This has the potential to democratize the use of complex genomic information, propelling pharmacogenomics from an academic concept to standard practice.

Central to evaluating this approach is the NHS PROGRESS programme—an ambitious multicenter study involving 20 sites across England. Patient recruitment focused on individuals prescribed common drug classes including statins for cholesterol management, opioids for pain relief, antidepressants for mental health conditions, and proton pump inhibitors for acid-related gastrointestinal disorders. For these patients, pharmacogenomic testing results were not only generated but returned in an integrated format within their electronic healthcare records, allowing prescribing clinicians to immediately access tailored pharmacogenomic guidance.

The initial findings from an interim analysis of the first 500 participants are striking. Every patient received genomic-informed prescribing advice within a median turnaround time of seven days, a timeline compatible with routine clinical cycles. Remarkably, 95% of participants harbored actionable pharmacogenomic variants pertinent to their prescribed medications. Even more compelling, just over one in four patients underwent prescription adjustments reflecting gene-informed recommendations—changes that favored safer or more efficacious therapies. These figures illuminate the untapped potential of genome-guided prescribing in everyday medicine.

However, implementing widespread pharmacogenomic interventions demands robust cost-effectiveness data to justify the investment. Dr. McDermott highlights the necessity of such health economic scrutiny, pointing to existing evidence that supports the clinical and financial value of pharmacogenomic testing in select contexts. Notably, the UK’s National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) has recently endorsed pharmacogenomic evaluation for all patients who have experienced stroke or transient ischemic attack, guiding antiplatelet therapy choices. This policy change stems from health economic models projecting substantial savings and improved quality of life attributed to the prevention of recurrent vascular events.

Building on their demonstrable success in delivering genomic insights within routine care pathways, Dr. McDermott and colleagues aim to harness large-scale, routinely collected healthcare data to quantify the downstream impacts of pharmacogenomic prescribing. Their future research will investigate whether the intervention reduces follow-up appointments, emergency department visits, and overall medication-related costs. This evidence could solidify the economic case for national adoption of pharmacogenomic strategies and transform prescribing paradigms.

One of the study’s most encouraging observations was the high level of clinician adherence to pharmacogenomic guidance. Healthcare professionals embraced the genetic data as they would any standard biomarker, incorporating it into therapeutic decisions without hesitation. This acceptance likely stems from the system’s elegant integration into existing workflow and the clinicians’ familiarity with adjusting medications based on physiological parameters like renal function. The hope is that pharmacogenomic profiles will become routine components of medical records worldwide, vastly enhancing personalized medicine’s reach.

Professor Dame Sue Hill, Chief Scientific Officer at NHS England, lauded the study’s pioneering impact, emphasizing the transformative potential of genomics-driven care. She underscored that over a quarter of participants experiencing medication adjustments reflects real-world benefits, reinforcing that pharmacogenomics is set to be a cornerstone of the NHS Genomic Medicine Service moving forward. This endorsement not only verifies the programme’s clinical relevance but also signals a systemic commitment to embracing genomic innovation at scale.

Echoing this sentiment, Professor Alexandre Reymond, Chair of the European Society of Human Genetics conference, stressed the universality of pharmacogenomic variants—each individual carries several actionable variants that can critically influence drug responses. By aligning prescribing practices with genomic data, the risk of adverse drug reactions or suboptimal therapies can be markedly reduced, heralding an era of more precise and safer medication management.

This body of work serves as a compelling proof of concept that pharmacogenomic data, once viewed as esoteric and cumbersome, can now be effectively harnessed within healthcare systems to optimize medication safety and effectiveness. The fusion of genetic insights with real-time clinical decision support provides a template not only for pharmacogenomics but for the broader integration of genomic medicine into routine care.

Looking ahead, the challenge lies in expanding access to pharmacogenomic testing, refining informatics platforms to accommodate evolving genomic knowledge, and continuously educating healthcare providers to maintain confidence in interpreting and acting on these data. Success in these endeavors promises a future in which every prescription is informed by the unique genetic architecture of the patient, maximizing therapeutic benefit while minimizing harm.

In this transformative journey, the NHS PROGRESS study and its pioneering researchers exemplify how innovation at the intersection of genomics, informatics, and clinical practice can deliver tangible improvements to patient care. As pharmacogenomics becomes embedded within healthcare workflows, it signals a seismic shift toward truly personalized medicine—one where genetics guides not just diagnosis, but the everyday decisions that underpin effective treatment.

Subject of Research: People

Article Title: Integrating pharmacogenomic guided prescribing into primary care: The NHS PROGRESS study

News Publication Date: Not specified

Web References: Not provided

References: Not provided

Image Credits: Not provided

Keywords: Pharmacogenetics, Clinical medicine, Medical genetics