The findings, published in Applied Research in Quality of Life, come from Wave 1 of the Global Flourishing Study, one of the most ambitious efforts ever mounted to understand human well-being across cultures. In this preregistered analysis, a team led by Richard G. Cowden of the Human Flourishing Program at Harvard University examined associations between 13 individual characteristics and retrospectively assessed childhood factors and the adult experience of perceiving divine punishment. With a sample of 202,898 participants spanning nations on every inhabited continent, the study offers an unusually broad window into how early life may shape one of the most intimate dimensions of religious experience.

Religious and spiritual struggles, as psychologists define them, are tensions and conflicts over spiritual matters. They can take many forms: anger at God, doubts about ultimate meaning, moral struggles, conflicts with fellow believers, or the perception that a malevolent supernatural force is at work. The form examined in this study—divine punishment—is among the most clinically significant. Prior research has linked such struggles to elevated psychological distress, poorer physical health outcomes, and even increased mortality among medically ill patients, making it important to understand where these experiences come from and who is most vulnerable.

Methodologically, the study took an unusually rigorous approach for cross-cultural research. The investigators estimated country-level modified Poisson models, a statistical framework well suited to modeling binary outcomes such as whether or not a person reports perceiving divine punishment. In each country, the outcome was regressed on all candidate predictors simultaneously, allowing the researchers to estimate the unique contribution of each factor while holding the others constant. They then aggregated results for the 11 predictors common across countries using random-effects meta-analysis, a technique that treats each country’s estimate as an observation of a shared underlying effect while formally accounting for variation between nations.

The meta-analytic risk ratios revealed three broad families of predictors. The first was individual characteristics: male gender, for example, was associated with a higher likelihood of perceiving divine punishment in adulthood, a pattern that runs counter to the broader finding in the psychology of religion that women tend to be more religiously engaged than men on most measures. The second family comprised early-life conditions and experiences. Two stood out: childhood abuse and feeling like an outsider within one’s own family. Both were associated with an elevated likelihood of later perceiving divine punishment, echoing a growing literature connecting childhood adversity to religious and spiritual struggles in adulthood.

The third family involved social circumstances and influences. Greater childhood financial difficulty predicted a higher likelihood of adult divine punishment perceptions, suggesting that socioeconomic adversity during the formative years may leave a durable imprint on how people interpret their relationship with the sacred. More surprisingly, more frequent religious service attendance during childhood was also associated with a higher likelihood of adult divine punishment. This finding does not necessarily imply that religion itself breeds spiritual distress. Rather, the researchers note, children raised in highly religious environments may simply have richer conceptual frameworks for understanding suffering in theological terms—including the idea that misfortune reflects divine displeasure—making such appraisals more cognitively available in adulthood.

The theoretical significance of these results lies in what they say about the life course. Drawing on life-course epidemiology and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of human development, the authors frame perceiving divine punishment as an outcome patterned by the interplay of individual, relational, and socioeconomic forces that unfold over decades. Attachment theory offers one influential lens: early relationships with caregivers, particularly when marked by abuse or exclusion, may be internalized as templates for later relationships with God. A child who experiences parental figures as harsh, rejecting, or unpredictable may, as an adult, more readily construe the divine along similar lines. Studies of parental attachment and God image have lent support to this correspondence hypothesis, and the new findings extend it to a far larger and more culturally diverse sample.

Yet the picture is not uniform. The associations were somewhat heterogeneous across countries, meaning the strength—and in some cases the direction—of the links varied from one national context to another. This heterogeneity is itself informative. Religious doctrines differ in how prominently divine punishment features, and cultural norms shape whether such experiences are considered normal, shameful, or pathological. Economic conditions, family structures, and the role of religious institutions in public life all differ across the 22 countries studied. A childhood predictor that looms large in one setting may be buffered or amplified in another, a nuance that single-country studies of spiritual struggle have largely been unable to capture.

The practical stakes of this work are considerable. Religious and spiritual struggles are not merely private theological puzzles; growing evidence indicates they can affect whole-person functioning, including mental health, physical health, and social relationships. If childhood factors help pattern who experiences these struggles, then interventions—whether delivered by clergy, chaplains, mental health professionals, or community organizations—could be designed with vulnerable populations in mind. Adults with histories of childhood abuse, family exclusion, or economic deprivation may warrant particular attention in pastoral care and spiritually integrated psychotherapy, not because their perception of divine punishment is irrational, but because it is traceable to identifiable developmental origins that can be addressed.

The study also sets a methodological benchmark. By preregistering its research questions, variables, and analytic plan with the Center for Open Science before accessing data, and by making all analysis code openly available, the team reduced the risk of undisclosed analytic flexibility—a chronic concern in cross-cultural psychology. The data themselves are publicly accessible, inviting independent replication and extension. As the Global Flourishing Study moves into subsequent waves, researchers will be able to examine whether early-life predictors measured more precisely, and outcomes tracked longitudinally, confirm and refine the picture sketched here. For now, the message is striking: the way adults imagine God’s attitude toward them may carry the fingerprints of their earliest years, written differently in every culture but legible across them all.

Subject of Research: Childhood predictors of perceiving divine punishment as a form of religious and spiritual struggle in adulthood across 22 countries

Article Title: Early-Life Predictors of Perceiving Divine Punishment in Adulthood Across 22 Countries

Article References: Cowden, R. G., Henry, J., Harris, C., Johnson, K. A., Case, B., Padgett, R. N., Johnson, B. R., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2026). Early-Life Predictors of Perceiving Divine Punishment in Adulthood Across 22 Countries. Applied Research in Quality of Life. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-026-10644-0

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s11482-026-10644-0

Keywords: divine punishment, religious struggles, childhood adversity, Global Flourishing Study, life course, psychology of religion, meta-analysis, attachment theory, cross-cultural research, spiritual struggles, childhood abuse, well-being

At the heart of the Global Flourishing Study is an innovative approach to operationalizing the construct of flourishing. Unlike traditional metrics that often focus narrowly on the absence of mental illness or distress, this study adopts a holistic, multidimensional perspective. It integrates cognitive and emotional well-being, physical health, purpose and meaning, character and virtue, and social relationships into a unified framework. This sophisticated operationalization was achieved through an iterative process of theoretical refinement combined with rigorous psychometric validation across diverse cultures, enabling researchers to capture the richness and complexity of what it means to flourish worldwide.

The study’s methodological rigor is particularly noteworthy. To ensure both reliability and validity, VanderWeele and colleagues employed advanced item response theory models and factor analysis techniques, which allowed them to parse out latent constructs underlying self-reported data. Their measurement instruments underwent extensive cross-cultural calibration, making the results comparable across countries with markedly different sociocultural contexts. By leveraging large-scale population surveys encompassing tens of thousands of respondents from multiple continents, the team has set a gold standard in the measurement of positive mental health outcomes that goes beyond symptomatic evaluations.

A defining feature of the Global Flourishing Study is its integration of longitudinal data collection, which permits an exploration of dynamic changes in flourishing over time. Pragmatically, this allows researchers to investigate causal pathways and prognostic indicators related to flourishing, which in turn informs targeted intervention strategies. For instance, the study identifies key psychosocial protective factors that consistently predict sustained flourishing, such as social support networks, a sense of community belonging, and engagement in meaningful activities. These findings have profound implications for public health policies and mental health promotion initiatives by focusing on what promotes thriving rather than merely preventing illness.

The study’s initial results provide compelling insights into global patterns and disparities in flourishing. The data reveal striking heterogeneity in flourishing levels between and within countries, shedding light on the social determinants of mental health in varying economic, political, and cultural landscapes. These disparities underscore the importance of contextualizing well-being interventions to local conditions rather than adopting one-size-fits-all approaches. Moreover, the study highlights vulnerable populations whose flourishing is disproportionately compromised, emphasizing the need for equity-focused mental health efforts.

Central to the theoretical contribution of the Global Flourishing Study is the elucidation of the bidirectional relationship between flourishing and physical health. The study rigorously demonstrates how flourishing not only results from good health but can also act as a buffer that promotes physiological resilience and recovery. This psychosomatic interface is explored through biological markers such as inflammatory cytokines and cortisol levels, affording a sophisticated biopsychosocial model. Such evidence paves the way for integrated health care approaches that prioritize psychological flourishing as an essential component of holistic health.

One innovative aspect of the study is its focus on virtue and character strengths, domains that have traditionally been peripheral in mainstream psychiatric research. Incorporating dimensions such as gratitude, forgiveness, humility, and courage into the assessment of flourishing opens new vistas for therapeutic practices. The research documents how these traits correlate strongly with other dimensions of flourishing and contribute to overall life satisfaction and purpose. This enrichment of flourishing’s conceptual scope challenges reductionist views and elevates virtue ethics within empirical scientific inquiry.

The research further explores the role of meaning and purpose, anchoring these as vital pillars of flourishing. Through sophisticated content analysis of qualitative responses alongside quantitative metrics, VanderWeele and colleagues elucidate the processes by which individuals cultivate a sense of purpose that sustains them through adversity. The findings suggest that interventions fostering existential engagement can significantly elevate flourishing, marking a paradigm shift toward more existentially informed mental health care.

Social connectedness emerges as another critical dimension within the Global Flourishing Study’s comprehensive framework. Empirical analysis confirms the robust association between strong interpersonal relationships and flourishing across diverse populations. The research dissects this relationship down to granular components such as empathy, trust, and reciprocity, illustrating the complex socio-emotional networks that foster communal well-being. Thereby, it offers actionable insights for designing community-based programs aimed at enhancing social cohesion and mitigating loneliness.

Environmental and societal factors are also examined as contributors to human flourishing. The study parses macro-level variables such as income inequality, political freedom, and ecological sustainability, connecting these with individual-level flourishing metrics. The coherence of these multilevel findings reinforces the idea that flourishing is embedded within broader social and environmental ecosystems, and that policy interventions must address systemic issues alongside individual psychology.

The Global Flourishing Study breaks new ground by incorporating cutting-edge data science methodologies, including machine learning algorithms and natural language processing, to analyze complex data sources. These tools enable pattern recognition and predictive modeling that unveil subtle interactions among flourishing components. Such analytical sophistication enhances the study’s capacity to generate testable hypotheses and drive innovation in mental health research.

Ethical considerations feature prominently in the study design, especially when working with vulnerable populations and sensitive data. The research team meticulously adheres to principles of informed consent, data privacy, and cultural sensitivity. Their transparent reporting standards set benchmarks for psychosocial research, underscoring the importance of ethics in large-scale population studies.

The study’s cross-disciplinary nature involves collaborations among psychologists, epidemiologists, sociologists, neuroscientists, and ethicists. This integrative approach facilitates a holistic grasp of human flourishing and fosters innovative methodologies that bridge traditional academic silos. By creating a unified research agenda, the Global Flourishing Study encourages convergent science aiming at the betterment of human well-being globally.

Looking toward application, the study’s findings have transformative potential for clinical practice, public health, education, and community development. Tailored interventions based on flourishing profiles can help optimize mental health outcomes and enhance quality of life. Moreover, the study’s comprehensive dataset offers fertile ground for secondary analyses that can uncover novel insights and drive evidence-based policymaking on a global scale.

In sum, the Global Flourishing Study represents a landmark contribution to the science of well-being, charting new territory in our understanding of what it means to live a flourishing life. Its robust methodology, innovative theoretical framework, and rich empirical data collectively propel the field toward a future where health care transcends the mere absence of disease and embraces the full spectrum of human thriving.

Subject of Research: The multidimensional measurement and determinants of human flourishing on a global scale.

Article Title: The Global Flourishing Study: Study Profile and Initial Results on Flourishing

Article References:

VanderWeele, T.J., Johnson, B.R., Bialowolski, P.T. et al. The Global Flourishing Study: Study Profile and Initial Results on Flourishing.
Nat. Mental Health (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-025-00423-5

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