For years, the scientific community has operated under the assumption that certain fundamental symmetries dictate the behavior of matter and forces at their most basic levels. Conformal symmetry, in particular, has been a cornerstone of many theoretical frameworks, implying that physical laws remain unchanged under transformations that preserve angles but not necessarily lengths. This invariance has been a powerful tool in simplifying complex problems and has allowed theorists to make remarkable predictions about the behavior of systems ranging from subatomic particles to the early universe. However, the new research suggests that this cherished symmetry might not be as universally applicable as previously believed, particularly when describing the collective behavior of matter under extreme conditions as described by hydrodynamics.

The study, titled “Scale without conformal symmetry in hydrodynamics,” delves into a realm where particles and forces interact in ways that defy conventional explanations. By meticulously analyzing the intricate dance of quantum fields, these brilliant minds have uncovered evidence for the existence of phenomena that exhibit scale invariance without adhering to the stricter constraints of conformal symmetry. This means that while certain aspects of these systems might appear similar at different scales – a characteristic often associated with conformal symmetry – the underlying mechanisms and mathematical descriptions diverge significantly. This divergence opens up a fascinating new territory for exploration, challenging physicists to develop entirely new theoretical tools and conceptual frameworks to understand these scale-invariant, yet non-conformally symmetric, systems.

Imagine a fluid, governed by hydrodynamic principles, behaving in a way that appears predictable and similar whether you are observing it at a microscopic level or a macroscopic one. This scale invariance is a hallmark that has historically been linked to conformal symmetry. However, Afxonidis and his colleagues have identified situations where this scale invariance persists even when the system demonstrably breaks conformal symmetry. This is akin to finding a clock that tells time perfectly at all speeds, but its internal gears and mechanisms operate in a manner that isn’t based on the usual, expected physics of timekeeping. This subtle but critical distinction is the crux of their discovery and its immense potential impact.

The technical details of their findings are rooted in advanced quantum field theory and complex mathematical formalisms. The researchers employed sophisticated techniques to probe the behavior of quantum systems and observed deviations from expected conformal symmetry while maintaining scale invariance. This implies that there are fundamental degrees of freedom and interaction mechanisms at play that were either overlooked or not anticipated by existing theoretical models. The ability to describe these phenomena accurately requires a departure from established paradigms, pushing the boundaries of our current theoretical abilities and demanding a re-evaluation of foundational assumptions in quantum physics.

This discovery carries significant weight for our understanding of the early universe, a period characterized by extreme densities and temperatures where matter behaved in ways that are still not fully understood. The precise nature of the state of matter shortly after the Big Bang, often described as a quark-gluon plasma, shares properties with systems exhibiting scale invariance. If these systems can exist and evolve without conformal symmetry, it could provide a new lens through which to interpret cosmological observations and refine our models of cosmic evolution, potentially resolving long-standing puzzles about the universe’s initial conditions and expansion.

Furthermore, the implications of this research extend beyond cosmology and into the realm of condensed matter physics and high-energy particle physics. Many exotic states of matter, such as superfluids, superconductors, and the dense matter found in neutron stars, exhibit behaviors that are remarkably scale-invariant. Understanding how these phenomena can arise without conformal symmetry could unlock new possibilities for manipulating and controlling the properties of materials, paving the way for revolutionary technologies in areas like quantum computing, advanced materials science, and even novel forms of energy generation.

The paper’s meticulous approach and rigorous mathematical analysis have earned it widespread acclaim within the theoretical physics community. The authors have evidently invested years of dedicated research and intellectual effort to arrive at these conclusions. The clarity and precision with which they present their findings, even when dealing with highly abstract concepts, are a testament to their expertise and the significance of their contribution. This isn’t a fleeting theoretical curiosity; it’s a robust, mathematically sound discovery that is poised to reshape our physical worldview.

The experimental verification of these theoretical predictions will undoubtedly be a monumental undertaking. Physicists will need to design and conduct highly specialized experiments, perhaps in particle accelerators or using advanced cryogenic techniques, to probe systems that exhibit these unusual properties. The challenges in creating and controlling conditions that can accurately mimic the complex quantum phenomena described in the paper are immense, but the potential rewards – a deeper, more unified understanding of the universe – are well worth the effort. The scientific endeavor is a continuous cycle of theoretical postulation and experimental verification, and this research sets a bold new direction for that cycle.

The concept of scale without conformal symmetry hints at a richer tapestry of fundamental interactions than previously imagined. It suggests that the universe possesses organizational principles that are not fully captured by the symmetries we currently hold dear. This opens the door to new types of fundamental forces or new ways in which known forces can manifest themselves under certain conditions. It’s a call to expand our theoretical toolkit and to embrace the possibility of discovering new, fundamental symmetries or the absence thereof in ways that were not previously countenanced by our established physical laws.

The impact of this research is likely to be felt across various sub-disciplines of physics. For particle physicists, it could mean re-examining the Standard Model and exploring extensions that accommodate these new insights. For cosmologists, it provides a potential new framework for understanding the inflationary epoch and the formation of large-scale structures in the universe. For condensed matter theorists, it offers a fertile ground for exploring emergent phenomena in complex materials and developing new theoretical tools for their description, potentially leading to breakthroughs in quantum technologies and advanced materials.

The elegance of the discovery lies in its ability to explain phenomena that have remained stubbornly resistant to conventional theoretical explanations. By proposing a framework where scale invariance can exist independently of conformal symmetry, Afxonidis and his team have provided a potential solution to long-standing theoretical puzzles. This elegant simplicity, arising from complex mathematics, is often a hallmark of truly profound scientific breakthroughs, hinting at an underlying order that is both subtle and powerful, waiting to be uncovered.

The scientific community eagerly anticipates the follow-up research and experimental efforts that will undoubtedly stem from this groundbreaking publication. This paper is not an endpoint, but rather a beacon, illuminating a path toward a more complete and accurate description of the universe. The journey to fully understand the implications of scale without conformal symmetry has just begun, promising a vibrant and exciting period of scientific exploration and discovery that could redefine our understanding of reality for generations to come, truly a watershed moment in modern physics.

With these findings, physicists are being challenged to think outside the box, to question long-held assumptions, and to develop entirely new theoretical paradigms. The universe, it seems, is even more nuanced and complex than we previously believed, offering an endless frontier for exploration. The beauty of science lies in its self-correcting nature and its relentless pursuit of truth, and this latest contribution exemplifies that spirit, pushing the boundaries of human knowledge towards a more profound comprehension of the cosmos and the fundamental forces that orchestrate its existence.

The very fabric of spacetime and the interactions of matter within it might be governed by principles more subtle and intricate than the symmetries we have so diligently studied. This revelation compels a deeper introspection into the fundamental nature of physical law, suggesting that our current understanding, while powerful, may be an incomplete approximation of a more profound and elegant reality. The pursuit of these new insights promises to be a challenging yet immensely rewarding endeavor, potentially leading to discoveries that will reshape our scientific understanding of the universe.

Subject of Research: The study focuses on the theoretical implications of scale invariance in hydrodynamic systems, specifically exploring scenarios where scale invariance can manifest without the presence of conformal symmetry. This probes the fundamental nature of physical laws under transformations that preserve scale but not necessarily angles, challenging existing theoretical frameworks in quantum field theory and hydrodynamics.

Article Title: Scale without conformal symmetry in hydrodynamics

Article References:

Afxonidis, E., Ghosh, J.K., Musso, D. et al. Scale without conformal symmetry in hydrodynamics.
Eur. Phys. J. C 85, 976 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-025-14685-x

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1140/epjc/s10052-025-14685-x

Keywords: Scale Invariance, Conformal Symmetry, Hydrodynamics, Quantum Field Theory, Theoretical Physics, Early Universe, Condensed Matter Physics, Fundamental Symmetries, Quark-Gluon Plasma, Theoretical Breakthrough

Cavitation bubbles, which emerge rapidly from a liquid due to localized pressure drops, are notorious for their immense energy release upon collapse. This energy often manifests as powerful liquid jets, capable of penetrating surfaces or generating shock waves. Historically, studies have examined cavitation bubbles in relatively clean or particle-free environments, focusing primarily on the bubble dynamics themselves. However, natural and industrial fluids rarely exist in such pristine states, often teeming with suspended particles. By shifting focus to these more realistic conditions, the new research probes how particles embedded in the fluid modulate the jetting phenomena triggered by bubble collapse.

The team, led by Cheng et al., employed an innovative combination of high-speed imaging and advanced numerical simulations to capture the nuances of jet formation near fluid surfaces cluttered with particles. Their methodology allowed them to analyze temporal and spatial evolution of jets with unprecedented resolution, assessing both velocity fields and morphological changes. The results were startling: particulate matter does not simply act as passive tracers but actively reshapes the jet morphology, trajectory, and energy distribution.

At the heart of these observations lies the interaction between the collapsing bubble’s pressure field and the particulate suspension’s mechanical properties. As the cavitation bubble contracts, the surrounding fluid rushes inward, creating a high-velocity jet at the liquid’s free surface. Particles disrupt this flow, scattering momentum unevenly and inducing secondary flow patterns that deviate markedly from those in particle-free conditions. This interaction is especially pronounced when particles reach a critical concentration or size, effectively damping jet velocity while simultaneously broadening the jet’s width.

Such modifications to jet dynamics have significant theoretical implications. Previous fluid dynamic models that assumed homogeneous fluid properties fall short in predicting jets’ real-world behavior within particulate-laden fluids. The study painstakingly derives adjustments to classical models, incorporating particulate effects through added drag forces and altered boundary conditions. These refined models capture the newly observed jet shapes and velocities, bridging the gap between theory and experiment.

Beyond theory, the practical ramifications of these findings extend across numerous disciplines. In marine engineering, cavitation-induced damage on ship propellers and turbine blades could be better managed by appreciating how suspended sediments influence jet impacts. Similarly, in medical therapies like lithotripsy, where cavitation bubbles are exploited to fragment kidney stones, controlling particulate concentrations might optimize treatment efficacy by modulating jet force and directionality. Even environmental sciences stand to benefit, as sediment-laden river waters exhibit cavitation patterns fundamentally different from clear waters, affecting erosion and sediment transport mechanisms.

Intriguingly, the research also hints at particle size distribution playing a pivotal role. The presence of nanoscale particles contrasted with microparticles yields distinct jet behaviors, suggesting that the particulate composition’s heterogeneity is a crucial factor. Nanoparticles appear to induce localized viscous dissipation zones, subtly smoothing jet profiles, whereas larger particles trigger more pronounced jet deflections and energy attenuation. This multiscale aspect underscores the complex interplay between fluid mechanics and particulate physics.

Moreover, temporal aspects of bubble collapse shift in particulate environments. The presence of particles not only influences the jets but also the bubble’s lifetime and collapse symmetry. Observations reveal delayed collapse phases and asymmetric implosions, which, in turn, influence jet initiation timing and force output. These altered collapse dynamics add another layer of complexity, emphasizing the need to view cavitation phenomena through a particulate-inclusive lens.

Complementing the experimental observations, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations provided granular insights into flow fields surrounding the cavitating bubbles. These simulations solved coupled Navier-Stokes equations with particle-fluid interaction terms, revealing subtle vortices and micro-scale eddies absent in homogeneous fluids. Such features contribute significantly to energy redistribution during collapse, influencing subsequent jet formation. The synergy between simulations and experiments represents a powerful strategy to unravel complex multiphase fluid phenomena.

Another aspect revealing itself through this research is the potential for controlling jet behavior via engineered particulate suspensions. By tuning particle size, concentration, and material properties, it might become feasible to tailor surface jet dynamics on demand. This could pioneer novel technological applications where precise fluid jet control is critical, for example in microfluidic devices, targeted drug delivery systems, or additive manufacturing processes.

The broader scientific community has greeted this study with enthusiasm, recognizing it as a paradigm shift in fluid mechanics and cavitation science. It challenges established notions that consider particulate elements mere impurities, instead elevating them to active agents capable of dictating fluid flow evolution. This insight invites a re-examination of multiple systems previously studied without accounting for particulate effects, potentially rewriting foundational principles.

Furthermore, the study raises interesting questions about the fundamental physics governing multiphase fluids under extreme conditions. Cavitation bubbles represent a sort of natural micro-reactor where pressure, temperature, and velocity fields reach extremes. Introducing particulate matter into this environment complicates the scenario, prompting inquiries into interfacial phenomena, particle-fluid coupling, and non-linear response regimes. Future work stemming from these findings could explore chemical reactions facilitated or hindered by particle-induced flow modifications.

Notably, the researchers emphasize that while the implications are vast, the current study primarily focuses on laminar flow regimes with spherical particles. Real-world fluids often display turbulent behaviors with irregular particle shapes and distributions, signaling rich avenues for extended investigation. Such complexities will demand refined experimental setups and computational models, possibly incorporating machine learning tools to navigate high-dimensional parameter spaces.

The visual evidence captured underscores the visceral nature of the phenomena. High-speed footage reveals jets morphing dramatically in real-time, their trajectories bending and amplitudes tapering as particles intervene. These images serve not only as scientific proof but as compelling narrative instruments, driving home the extraordinary dynamism of cavitation systems when confronted with particulate complexities.

In conclusion, this compelling research illuminates a critical yet overlooked facet of cavitation bubble dynamics. By integrating particle-fluid interactions into the study of surface jet formation, Cheng and colleagues open a new chapter in fluid dynamics that has immediate and long-term impacts across science and engineering domains. The intricate relationships uncovered between particulate matter and jet behavior herald a future where fluid flow may be manipulated at micro and macroscale by harnessing seemingly inert suspended particles, transforming cavitation from a destructive force to a finely tunable tool in technology.

Subject of Research: Particulate effects on cavitation bubble-induced surface jet dynamics

Article Title: Particulate reshapes surface jet dynamics induced by a cavitation bubble

Article References:
Cheng, X., Chen, X.P., Yuan, Z.M. et al. Particulate reshapes surface jet dynamics induced by a cavitation bubble. Nat Commun 16, 7562 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-025-62936-y

Image Credits: AI Generated

Airflow separation—a phenomenon where a fluid flow breaks away from the surface it moves over—has long been a critical yet elusive part of understanding boundary layer dynamics over water waves. Previously, models of airflow over ocean waves relied heavily on indirect measurements or computational simulations, leaving gaps in knowledge regarding the precise mechanisms governing momentum and energy transfer in these environments. The direct visualizations obtained in this study illuminate the intricate processes at play, revealing localized vortices and turbulent wake regions that form as wind interacts with wave peaks and troughs.

One of the seminal revelations of this research is the identification of wave-coherent airflow separation, a dynamic in which the behavior of the airflow synchronizes with the underlying wave structure. This coherence affects not only the shear stresses exerted by the wind on the sea surface but also modulates the generation of ocean spray and sea salt aerosols, which have significant implications for cloud formation and, consequently, global climate systems. By capturing these interactions in situ, the study provides data essential for refining weather prediction and climate models with greater fidelity.

The experimental setup underpinning this research combined advanced meteorological instrumentation with high-speed imaging technology installed on a specially equipped ocean-going platform. This sophisticated synergy allowed the researchers to capture minute changes in wind velocity profiles over individual wave crests and the subsequent detachment points where airflow separates from the wave surfaces. The ability to pinpoint these detachment points directly evidences the transient nature of flow separation and challenges earlier assumptions that treated such phenomena as steady or uniform.

In addition to high-resolution time series data, Doppler lidar was employed to remotely sense the three-dimensional flow patterns just above the sea surface. These measurements revealed a consistent pattern of wind deceleration and reversal near wave crests, corresponding to flow detachment, followed by turbulent reattachment in the wake region. These intricate flow structures contribute to enhanced drag and turbulence kinetic energy generation, fundamentally altering momentum transfer between air and water.

The findings have immediate implications for the study of ocean wave growth, a process governed partly by momentum exchange through airflow separation and reattachment. Traditional wave growth models have significantly underestimated the role of separated airflow structures in modulating energy input into the waves. This study highlights how airflow separation introduces additional energy dissipation mechanisms and localized flow instabilities, necessitating a reevaluation of existing empirical relationships used in wave forecasting.

Moreover, the interaction between airflow separation over waves and the generation of marine aerosols holds profound significance for atmospheric chemistry. The vortex structures formed by separated flows enhance the injection of sea spray aerosols into the lower atmosphere, which serve as cloud condensation nuclei influencing cloud microphysics and radiative properties. Therefore, these insights forge a vital link between microscale fluid dynamics and macroscale climate processes.

The researchers elucidate that the size and strength of the separated airflow zones vary with wind speed, wave age, and wave steepness, suggesting strong feedback mechanisms between surface wave development and atmospheric boundary layer dynamics. At higher wind speeds, more pronounced separation regions form, exacerbating aerodynamic drag and modifying near-surface turbulence structure. Such dynamics are particularly critical in severe weather events, including tropical cyclones and extratropical storms, where the interplay between wind and waves governs storm intensity and energy dissipation.

By integrating observational data with refined computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models, the team advanced a new parameterization of airflow separation effects tailored to ocean-atmosphere coupled models. This parameterization improves upon earlier simplifications by embedding the spatially and temporally varying nature of flow separation within the wave boundary layer framework. Implementing such nuanced representations into climate models stands to enhance predictive capabilities for both short-term weather forecasts and long-term climate projections reliant on accurate aerosol-cloud interaction modeling.

This pioneering work also underscores the importance of field campaigns supported by multi-sensor measurements in resolving longstanding gaps in marine boundary layer processes. The dynamic, stochastic nature of ocean waves and atmospheric turbulence defies replication through laboratory experiments alone, necessitating ongoing innovation in deploying in situ instrumentation aboard research vessels and buoy platforms. Future research directions include expanding observations to diverse oceanic conditions, allowing for the generalization of these airflow separation dynamics under varying climatic regimes.

One striking aspect uncovered by this research is the non-linear feedback loop between separated airflow and wave-induced pressure gradients. As airflow separates from the upslope of a wave, it creates pressure drops downstream, which in turn influence wave shape and stability. These interdependencies exemplify the coupled complexity of air-sea interactions and demand multidisciplinary collaboration between fluid dynamicists, meteorologists, and oceanographers to fully unravel their effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation.

The study’s methodological advancements in capturing direct airflow separation signatures provide a valuable blueprint for analogous investigations into other geophysical flows, such as katabatic winds over ice sheets or airflow over complex mountainous terrains. The ability to detect and quantify separation zones with high spatial and temporal resolution could revolutionize understanding of flow-driven weather phenomena beyond the marine context.

Importantly, this research reaffirms the nuanced role that small-scale fluid dynamics play in the Earth system’s broader climate machinery. By revealing that the seemingly chaotic and turbulent airflow over ocean waves exhibits distinct coherent separation features, it challenges the traditional perception of boundary layer turbulence as fully random and uncoupled from surface wave dynamics. Such insights pave the way for novel approaches in environmental monitoring and modeling that explicitly account for wave-modulated airflow structures.

In conclusion, direct observations of airflow separation over ocean surface waves mark a paradigm shift in marine boundary layer science. This breakthrough deepens comprehension of momentum, heat, and mass exchanges at the air-sea interface and highlights the intricate coupling between fluid dynamics and climate-relevant processes. As research builds upon these discoveries, the enhanced understanding promises to improve atmospheric modeling, hazard prediction, and ultimately our capacity to anticipate and mitigate climate change impacts.

Subject of Research: Direct observations and analysis of airflow separation phenomena over ocean surface waves, focusing on air-sea interaction dynamics and boundary layer fluid mechanics.

Article Title: Direct observations of airflow separation over ocean surface waves.

Article References:
Buckley, M.P., Horstmann, J., Savelyev, I. et al. Direct observations of airflow separation over ocean surface waves. Nat Commun 16, 5526 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-61133-1

Image Credits: AI Generated

At the heart of this research lies a deceptively simple inquiry posed by a collaborative team from UNC-Chapel Hill and Princeton University: is it possible for upward and downward shaking of bubbles to drive them to move continuously in one directional sense? What unfolded was anything but ordinary, revealing an unexpected transformation—a spontaneous shift in bubble motion that is perpendicular to the direction of the induced vibrations. This counterintuitive behavior challenges established norms in physics, igniting fresh discussions surrounding the mechanics of fluid behavior.

Moreover, through rigorous experimentation, the researchers found that by manipulating different parameters, such as the frequency and amplitude of the shakes, the bubbles could transition among various motion patterns. From predictable straight-line trajectories to chaotic zigzag patterns that closely resemble the erratic search behaviors of certain bacteria, the versatility discovered in bubble movement marks a significant step forward in the field of fluid dynamics. This newfound capability to control bubble pathways emphasizes the potential for technology to harness both micro-scale phenomena and macro-scale applications.

The broader significance of such bubble manipulation cannot be overstated. Bubbles hold crucial functions in numerous processes encountered in everyday life, from the effervescence in carbonated beverages to critical functions in environmental conservation and industrial applications. With the prospect of controlling this elusive behavior, researchers are presented with a novel approach to improving technologies that impact everything from water treatment systems to advanced material manufacturing processes.

One area poised for transformation is the cooling systems utilized in microchips. Under normal terrestrial conditions, buoyancy effectively assists in removing excess heat by allowing bubbles to evacuate heated surfaces. However, in microgravity scenarios—such as those faced in space exploration—gravity’s absence creates challenges in managing the buildup of heat on essential electronic components. This exploration into the behavior of galloping bubbles presents an innovative method of bubble manipulation that could enables efficient cooling mechanisms without reliance on gravitational forces, paving the way for enhanced thermal management in space technology.

The implications of galloping bubbles extend even further into the realm of surface cleaning. Preliminary experiments have suggested that these energetic bubbles can perform cleaning tasks akin to miniature robotic vacuums, adeptly bouncing and weaving across dusty surfaces. The capacity to command bubble movement in such a manner holds promise for revolutionary approaches to industrial cleaning methodologies, providing an efficient alternative for maintaining cleanliness in various environments. Furthermore, this innovative bubble behavior may find applications in the medical field, where precisely navigating bubbles could facilitate targeted drug delivery systems.

As the research team shared their findings, the excitement surrounding galloping bubbles grew. The scientists emphasized how this new self-propulsion mechanism offers unprecedented navigation capabilities within complex fluid environments. The possibilities for advancements in diverse fields such as microfluidics, health technology, and soft robotics are indeed vast and compelling.

Historically, the fascination with bubbles has long captivated scientists, with early observations tracing back to pioneering thinkers like Leonardo da Vinci, who documented the unpredictable paths taken by these elusive entities. Over centuries, the understanding of bubble dynamics remained largely constrained, with previous methods failing to establish control over bubble motion with sufficient versatility. This substantial breakthrough challenges that narrative, illuminating a pathway for scientists to conceptualize and realize controlled bubble behavior that operates under predictable conditions.

As researchers continue their inquiries into the nuances of bubble dynamics, further explorations will undoubtedly unveil additional complexities within this field. While the galloping motion is a remarkable manifestation, it is the myriad of underlying principles at play that beckons deeper investigation. The journey to unlock the full potential of these bubbles promises to inspire a new wave of technological innovation.

In light of these revelations, there is a growing consensus among the scientific community that embracing this novel understanding of bubble dynamics can yield transformative solutions to long-standing challenges across diverse industries. By subverting conventional perceptions and embracing the dynamic capabilities of galloping bubbles, the horizon is broadening for applications stretching far beyond the realm of traditional fluid mechanics. As the research takes flight, the world is poised to witness how such tiny yet mighty bubbles might help shape future technologies, marrying scientific curiosity with practical application and harnessing nature’s playful wonders.

The study, available in the journal Nature Communications, serves as a testament to the evolving frontier of scientific knowledge. Continuing collaboration, experimentation, and exploration of the galloping bubbles phenomenon may well lead to a reimagining of established technologies and an invitation for innovation that embraces the interplay between science and engineering. The marriage of rigorous scientific inquiry with the multifaceted nature of bubble behavior heralds a time of exciting possibilities.

As interest continues to rise, it is essential for scholars and innovators alike to engage with these findings and consider the implications for their respective fields. Engaging with the unpredictability of fluid dynamics may not only spark curiosity but also illuminate pathways for advancements capable of changing the landscape of technology and its intersection with everyday life.

In conclusion, the discovery of galloping bubbles marks a pivotal moment in scientific inquiry—one that resonates deeply across both theoretical considerations and real-world applications. The ability to assert control over such seemingly benign phenomena at the micro level opens a new chapter in fluid dynamics, promising that as knowledge expands, so too does the potential for ingenuity and innovation.

Subject of Research: Bubble Dynamics
Article Title: Galloping Bubbles
News Publication Date: 12-Feb-2025
Web References: Nature Communications
References: 10.1038/s41467-025-56611-5
Image Credits: Not applicable

Keywords

Applied physics, fluid dynamics