The research focused on two species: Dictyophora indusiata, known in Chinese as zhu sheng, with its conspicuous brownish, lace-like indusium and crisp, fragile texture, and Dictyophora rubrovalvata, distinguished by a reddish volva and a compact, spongy stipe. Both are culinary stars, but they behave very differently in the kitchen and in storage. Fresh D. rubrovalvata fruiting bodies contain roughly 85 to 90 percent moisture, making them extremely perishable, and their dried products are prone to breakage and browning during long-term storage. Despite these practical differences, systematic comparative studies of the two species had been scarce, with most previous work homogenizing whole fruiting bodies or examining dried products, thereby averaging out the structural complexity that defines how these mushrooms actually perform on the plate.

To resolve that gap, the team, led by Mingzheng Duan of Zhaotong University and colleagues at the Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, cultivated both species side by side at an experimental base in Yunnan starting in late March 2025. Trenches were filled with uncomposted bamboo sawdust and covered with soil, each strain was fragmented into chestnut-sized pieces, and rice straw mulch maintained moisture under shade nets. When mature fruiting bodies emerged during peak production in late August 2025, the researchers dissected them into two tissues: the cap, which carries the characteristic flavor, and the volva, which contributes more to mouthfeel. All samples were immediately flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at minus 80 degrees Celsius until analysis, preserving the volatile and phenolic chemistry of the living tissue.

The analytical arsenal was formidable. For non-volatile taste compounds, commercial assay kits quantified glucose, soluble sugar, sucrose, reducing sugar, starch, citric acid, malic acid, and glutamic acid on a microplate reader, with absorbance read at wavelengths ranging from 450 to 620 nanometers depending on the reagent system. Glutamic acid, the key umami driver, was measured at 450 nanometers using a standard curve and expressed as milligrams per gram dry weight. Total phenolic content was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method at 760 nanometers, calibrated against gallic acid. Radical scavenging capacity was assessed with two complementary assays: DPPH, read at 517 nanometers, and ABTS, read at 734 nanometers after the ABTS working solution was diluted to an absorbance of 0.70 at 734 nanometers. Both were expressed as Trolox equivalents per gram dry weight, providing a quantitative measure of each tissue’s ability to neutralize free radicals through single-electron transfer.

For the volatile aroma chemistry, the team used headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Five hundred milligrams of frozen tissue went into sealed 20-milliliter headspace vials containing saturated sodium chloride solution to suppress enzymatic reactions and enhance volatile partitioning. Each sample was spiked with 20 microliters of a deuterated internal standard, 3-hexanone-d5, before extraction with a 120-micrometer DVB/CWR/PDMS SPME Arrow fiber exposed to the headspace for 15 minutes at 60 degrees Celsius. Desorption occurred at 250 degrees Celsius in splitless mode onto a DB-5MS capillary column, with helium as carrier gas at 1.2 milliliters per minute and a multi-stage oven program ramping from 40 to 280 degrees Celsius. The Agilent 7000D triple quadrupole mass spectrometer operated in electron impact mode at 70 electron volts, scanning mass-to-charge ratios from 35 to 500. Compounds were identified against the NIST 20 library and by retention indices relative to n-alkanes, then quantified by internal standard normalization on a fresh weight basis, chosen to reflect the volatiles actually released from fresh tissue and directly relevant to consumer perception.

Crucially, the researchers did not stop at relative abundance. They calculated relative odor activity values, or rOAVs, for each volatile by dividing its content by its odor detection threshold, drawn from a published compilation. Only compounds with rOAV at or above 1 were considered aroma-active contributors, a filter that isolates the small subset of molecules with disproportionate sensory impact. This rOAV-weighted approach, combined with odor descriptions from public flavor databases, allowed the team to translate raw chemical data into predicted sensory profiles without the averaging effects that plague whole-fruiting-body analyses.

The results were striking. Total phenolic content was highest in the D. indusiata cap at 6.05 milligrams gallic acid equivalents per gram dry weight, significantly exceeding the 3.80 measured in the D. rubrovalvata cap. DPPH radical scavenging capacity followed the same pattern: 2.45 micromoles Trolox equivalents per gram dry weight in the D. indusiata cap versus just 0.74 in the D. rubrovalvata cap, a 3.3-fold difference. ABTS scavenging capacity was 1212.7 micrograms Trolox equivalents per gram dry weight in the D. indusiata cap against 788.0 in the D. rubrovalvata cap, and the ABTS scavenging rate peaked at 56.5 percent in the D. indusiata cap. Even the volva showed the same species hierarchy, with D. indusiata consistently ahead. These biochemical measurements pointed squarely at the D. indusiata cap as a distinct radical scavenging chemotype.

UPLC-MS/MS phenolic metabolomics explained why. Using a SCIEX QTRAP 6500+ system with electrospray ionization in both positive and negative modes, and multiple reaction monitoring with optimized declustering potentials and collision energies, the team profiled phenolic compounds extracted from lyophilized tissue in pre-cooled 70 percent methanol. Among differential phenolics between the two caps, compounds confirmed at Metabolomics Standards Initiative Level 1 included alpha-oxo-benzeneacetic acid with a log2 fold change of 13.48, veratraldehyde at 10.74, phenyllactate at 9.16, phloretate at 7.97, and DL-3-phenyllactic acid at 7.88, all upregulated in D. indusiata. The cap-to-cap comparison yielded 109 differential phenolics, with 81 upregulated in D. indusiata. These structures contain multiple ortho-dihydroxyl or trihydroxyl groups and extended conjugation, which lower redox potential and enhance electron donation and metal chelation compared to monophenolics, a structure-activity relationship well documented in tea, cereals, and fruits. Unlike common cultivated mushrooms such as Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus, which typically harbor less than 1 to 2 milligrams per gram of simple phenolic acids, the D. indusiata cap displays a richer and more diversified phenolic repertoire.

The volatile data told an equally dramatic story. The D. indusiata cap accumulated 339.2 micrograms per gram fresh weight of total volatiles, nearly double the 160.6 in the D. rubrovalvata cap. Differential accumulation analysis identified 571 volatile compounds significantly altered between the two caps, with 461 upregulated in D. indusiata and only 68 in D. rubrovalvata. Terpenoids and esters dominated the discriminant markers, with several showing fold changes exceeding 10. Class-wise, ethers were abundant in the D. indusiata cap at 31.9 micrograms per gram fresh weight but nearly absent in D. rubrovalvata at 0.26, representing the most dramatic class-wise difference between species. Orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis confirmed robust separation, with R2Y of 0.993 and Q2 of 0.987 validated by 200 random permutations. Correlation analysis revealed that cap volatiles between species showed low correlation at roughly 0.30, whereas volva samples across species exhibited high correlation at 0.95 to 0.98, indicating that the cap is the primary site of species-specific metabolic divergence while the volva remains metabolically conserved.

Translating chemistry into predicted aroma, the rOAV analysis suggested that the D. indusiata cap delivers a complex bouquet dominated by 1-octen-3-ol, the classic mushroom odorant, alongside alpha-ionone with its violet, woody, fruity character, limonene oxides, and fruity esters like ethyl (E)-2-octenoate. These high-impact odorants align with predicted sweet, fruity, floral, and woody notes. In contrast, the D. rubrovalvata cap showed a simpler profile with relative dominance of C6 green-note alcohols, (E)- and (Z)-2-hexen-1-ol, derived from lipoxygenase-mediated oxidation of linolenic acid, imparting green, grassy, and herbal nuances. Network analysis showed that terpenoids and esters formed a densely connected cluster with strong positive correlations, coordinated in their enrichment in D. indusiata, while the green-note alcohols showed predominantly negative correlations with that cluster, consistent with their higher abundance in D. rubrovalvata. Meanwhile, primary metabolites revealed divergent carbon partitioning: the D. rubrovalvata cap accumulated substantially higher glucose, reducing sugar, soluble sugar, starch, and glutamic acid at 4.56 versus 2.13 milligrams per gram dry weight, favoring sweetness and umami, whereas the D. indusiata volva was enriched in glucose, soluble sugar, and especially malic acid at 36.39 milligrams per gram dry weight, the highest among all samples.

The authors propose that the D. indusiata cap acts as a metabolic hotspot where phenylpropanoids from the shikimate pathway contribute to radical scavenging protection while terpenoids from the mevalonate and MEP pathways and esters from esterification reactions serve olfactory functions, pathways that share cofactors like NADPH and ATP and may be under coordinated regulation. Ecologically, this makes sense: the cap houses the gleba and attracts insect dispersers via strong odors, a strategy tightly linked to volatile production, while the volva serves structural and protective functions requiring a more conserved metabolic program. From a food chemistry perspective, the implications are clear. The D. indusiata cap, combining dense radical scavenging capacity with a complex, intense aroma, is positioned as a high-value functional ingredient for soups, sauces, plant-based meat analogues, and functional snacks, attractive as a natural flavoring and clean-label antioxidant source. Conversely, the D. rubrovalvata cap, with higher sugars and glutamate and a greener, fattier aroma, is better suited for sweetness- and umami-driven applications such as broths and seasonings, especially when combined with nucleotide-rich ingredients for umami synergy. The authors acknowledge limitations, including the small sample size of three biological replicates, the absence of trained sensory panel validation, and unknown bioavailability of the complex phenolic conjugates, noting that future work should integrate transcriptomics, descriptive sensory analysis, and simulated gastrointestinal digestion models to confirm these chemotypes and support targeted valorization of the D. indusiata cap as a high-value functional ingredient.

Subject of Research: Integrated tissue-specific flavoromics and metabolomics reveal species-specific aroma and radical scavenging chemotypes in Dictyophora mushrooms

Article Title: Integrated tissue-specific flavoromics and metabolomics reveal species-specific aroma and radical scavenging chemotypes in Dictyophora mushrooms

Article References: Duan, M., Zhao, C., Wu, Q., Tao, M., Wang, X., Lu, T., Qu, T., Li, M., Li, T., Tang, L., Rao, M. J., Wang, Z., & Wu, X. (2026). Integrated tissue-specific flavoromics and metabolomics reveal species-specific aroma and radical scavenging chemotypes in Dictyophora mushrooms. Food Chemistry: X, Article 104632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2026.104632

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.fochx.2026.104632

Keywords: Integrated, tissue-specific, flavoromics, metabolomics, reveal, species-specific, aroma, radical, scavenging, chemotypes, Dictyophora, mushrooms

The scale of the chemical survey is striking. Using headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, the researchers detected a total of 1,509 volatile compounds distributed across 15 chemical classes. That figure alone illustrates how chemically complex a single cup of fermented tea can be. Among these volatiles, three families stood out as dominant contributors to the overall aroma landscape: terpenes, esters, and ketones. Terpenes, the same class of molecules that give pine resin, citrus peel, and many flowers their characteristic scents, are well known in tea science as products of plant metabolism and microbial transformation during fermentation. Esters typically contribute fruity and floral nuances, while ketones often impart woody, buttery, or roasted notes, making this trio a plausible chemical backbone for the rich and varied aroma palette of Liupao tea.

Detecting thousands of compounds is one thing; identifying which of them actually matter to the human nose is another. To narrow the field, the team turned to orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis, or OPLS-DA, a supervised statistical method that finds the metabolites most responsible for separating groups of samples. Combined with a relative odor activity value threshold, this approach allowed the researchers to screen out 47 key aroma compounds with ROAV values of 100 or above, meaning these molecules occur at concentrations high enough, relative to their sensory detection thresholds, to exert a decisive influence on perceived aroma. These 47 compounds serve as the chemical fingerprints that distinguish betelnut, stale, ginseng, and jujube Liupao teas from one another, offering an objective basis for a classification system that has traditionally rested on subjective expertise.

Importantly, the study did not stop at volatile chemistry. Aroma is only half of flavor, and the researchers used ultra-performance liquid chromatography to profile the non-volatile compounds that shape taste and mouthfeel. Their analysis highlighted three non-volatile metabolites as mediators of flavor divergence between the four aroma types: catechin, gallic acid, and theobromine. Catechins are the characteristic polyphenols of tea, responsible for astringency and bitterness and celebrated for their antioxidant activity. Gallic acid, a product of catechin degradation during fermentation, contributes sour and astringent sensations, while theobromine, a purine alkaloid related to caffeine, adds a mild bitterness. The presence and proportions of these compounds varied across the aroma types, demonstrating that the flavor identity of each Liupao style emerges from an interplay between what the nose detects and what the tongue perceives.

One of the most intriguing findings concerns the relationship between these two chemical worlds. Using Mantel tests, a statistical technique for assessing correlations between distance matrices, the researchers uncovered synergistic correlations between catechin compounds and the key volatile aroma compounds. In practical terms, this suggests that the polyphenol chemistry of the tea leaf and the volatile chemistry generated during fermentation do not evolve independently. Instead, they appear to move together across the four aroma types, hinting at coupled metabolic pathways in which the breakdown and transformation of catechins during microbial fermentation may parallel or even drive the formation of aroma-active volatiles. For tea producers, this raises the tantalizing possibility that controlling fermentation conditions to steer polyphenol conversion could simultaneously steer aroma development.

To probe how volatile compounds might contribute to sweetness, a taste usually attributed to sugars and amino acids, the team employed molecular docking, a computational method that predicts how small molecules fit into the binding pockets of proteins. They focused on T1R2 and T1R3, the two subunits of the human sweet taste receptor that together recognize sweet-tasting molecules. The docking analysis identified 12 volatile compounds that bind to these receptors, with van der Waals forces and electrostatic interactions serving as the principal binding mechanisms. Van der Waals interactions arise from transient fluctuations in electron distribution that create weak attractions between molecules in close contact, while electrostatic interactions involve attraction between oppositely charged or polarized regions of the ligand and the receptor. The finding that aroma molecules can engage the sweet receptor provides a molecular explanation for the rounded, sweet character that tasters often describe in well-fermented dark teas, where smell and taste reinforce one another.

Beyond individual compounds, the researchers traced the metabolic origins of the aroma differences. Their pathway analysis showed that terpenoid and amino acid metabolic pathways dominated the differentiation of the four aroma types. Terpenoid metabolism governs the biosynthesis and transformation of the terpene volatiles that dominated the chemical profile, while amino acid metabolism supplies precursors for a wide range of aroma compounds, including aldehydes, ketones, and esters formed through Strecker degradation and other fermentation-driven reactions. This dual emphasis makes biochemical sense: the tea plant supplies a terpene-rich and amino-acid-rich raw material, and the microbial communities of the post-fermentation process remodel that inheritance into the distinct aromatic signatures that buyers and graders recognize.

The practical implications of the work extend across the Liupao tea industry. By identifying type-specific key metabolites, the study provides chemical markers that could be used for quality control, authenticity verification, and aroma-type classification, replacing or supplementing the judgment of human sensory panels with reproducible instrumental measurements. For producers in Wuzhou and beyond, such markers could help standardize production of each aroma style, ensure consistency across batches, and protect the regional identity of the tea against imitation. The identification of sweet-receptor-binding volatiles may also inform blending and fermentation strategies aimed at enhancing perceived sweetness without adding sugar, an attractive prospect for health-conscious consumers.

The research also contributes to a broader scientific conversation about flavoromics, the integrated study of all chemical contributors to flavor. Rather than treating volatiles and non-volatiles separately, flavoromics seeks to connect them through statistical and mechanistic models, and this study exemplifies that approach by linking volatile profiles, non-volatile taste compounds, correlation networks, and receptor-level docking into a single analytical framework. Similar multi-omics strategies are increasingly being applied to other fermented foods, from bolete mushrooms to Pu’er tea, reflecting a growing recognition that flavor emerges from systems of interacting metabolites rather than from any single hero compound.

Funded by the Guangxi Natural Science Foundation and other regional programs, and conducted by researchers embedded in the tea’s home terroir, the study marks a step toward a molecular understanding of one of China’s historic dark teas. It remains to be seen whether the 47 key aroma compounds and the 12 sweet-binding volatiles identified here will hold up across more tea samples, vintages, and production sites, and sensory validation with human tasters will be needed to confirm the receptor-level predictions. But the message of the work is clear: the beloved aromas of Liupao tea are not mystical accidents of fermentation but the legible outputs of specific metabolic pathways, and with the right analytical tools, those outputs can now be read, measured, and perhaps one day deliberately designed.

Subject of Research: Flavoromics and molecular docking analysis of key aroma and taste compounds across four Liupao tea aroma types

Article Title: Analysis of key compounds and flavor differences across four Liupao tea aroma types via flavoromics and molecular docking

Article References: Li, Y., Wu, H., Liang, J., & Pan, Y. (2026). Analysis of key compounds and flavor differences across four Liupao tea aroma types via flavoromics and molecular docking. npj Science of Food. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-026-01166-y

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1038/s41538-026-01166-y

Keywords: Liupao tea, flavoromics, molecular docking, volatile compounds, terpenes, catechins, sweet taste receptor, T1R2 T1R3, OPLS-DA, fermented tea, metabolomics, food chemistry

The motivation is industrial as much as scientific. China’s annual aquaculture yield of fresh sea cucumber exceeds 220,000 tons, generating enormous quantities of protein-rich raw material that conventional processing methods such as drying and rehydration fail to exploit at high value. The researchers, led by Zhongxing Chu of Central South University of Forestry and Technology and colleagues, reasoned that enzymatic hydrolysis could unlock that value in two directions at once: releasing short bioactive peptides with immunomodulatory potential while also reshaping the flavor profile of the resulting ingredient. What has been missing in prior work, they argue, is a systematic account of how protein structure, flavor chemistry, and peptide bioactivity are connected under a defined hydrolysis process.

To make that connection, the team subjected sea cucumber protein with a purity above 90 percent and a collagen content above 82 percent to a sequential three-enzyme digestion using pepsin, trypsin, and enterokinase, each applied at an enzyme-to-substrate ratio of 1 percent for four hours at 37 degrees Celsius. The treatment cleaved roughly 40.72 percent of the available peptide bonds, as measured by the o-phthalaldehyde colorimetric method, producing a hydrolysate dominated by short fragments. A parallel blank control without added enzymes ruled out interference from endogenous proteases in the raw material, ensuring that the observed transformations could be attributed to the deliberate enzymatic process.

The structural consequences of that digestion were documented with an unusually thorough battery of techniques. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the native protein, an irregular and densely packed sheet-like material with smooth surfaces, was transformed into a porous, sponge-like network riddled with interconnected cavities. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy showed a decline in ordered alpha-helical content and a rise in random coil structures, while ultraviolet and fluorescence spectroscopy demonstrated that aromatic amino acids buried in the hydrophobic core had been exposed to the aqueous environment, with the tryptophan emission peak red-shifting from about 330 to 345 nanometers. X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry completed the picture: the hydrolysate lost the cooperative thermal denaturation behavior characteristic of intact proteins, meaning the small peptides are less prone to coagulation during food processing, a practical advantage for manufacturers.

Flavor, often treated as an afterthought in peptide research, received full analytical attention here. Using headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography on an Orbitrap mass spectrometer, the team identified 147 significantly differential volatile compounds between the native protein and the hydrolysate, with 74 upregulated after digestion. Aldehydes such as hexanal and (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, products of unsaturated fatty acid oxidation, drove the green and fatty notes, while heterocyclic compounds including 2-pentylfuran and trimethylpyrazine, likely born of Maillard reactions between newly liberated amino groups and trace reducing sugars, contributed fried and waxy aromas. The multivariate statistical models separating the two sample groups passed rigorous validation with 200 permutation tests, lending confidence to the conclusion that hydrolysis fundamentally remodeled the volatile landscape of the ingredient.

Peptide identification by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry revealed roughly 9.5 amino acids as the average chain length, with most peptides falling between 0.5 and 1.5 kilodaltons, a size range favorable for intestinal absorption. Glycine and glutamine or glutamic acid dominated the amino acid composition, each exceeding 13 percent average abundance, a signature of the (Gly-X-Y) repeating motif of collagen and direct confirmation that the peptides derived from sea cucumber collagen. The peptides were overwhelmingly hydrophilic and weakly acidic, properties that improve dispersibility in aqueous food systems and reduce precipitation, and the high confidence scores of the identifications underscored the reliability of the dataset.

The screening stage is where the study’s integrative design paid off. From the mass spectrometric sequences, the researchers applied a cascade of computational tools: umami and bitterness predictors, the PeptideRanker bioactivity server, a CSM-peptides immunomodulatory model, and safety checks for toxicity, allergenicity, and water solubility. Sixteen high-confidence peptides emerged, and three candidates, FDRGF, CPPGFMG, and FFSLFCLL, cleared the thresholds of umami probability of at least 0.23, bioactivity score of at least 0.97, and non-toxic, non-bitter status. An electronic tongue then arbitrated. FDRGF, a pentapeptide with the sequence phenylalanine-aspartic acid-arginine-glycine-phenylalanine, posted an umami response of 78, second only to monosodium glutamate at 85, with minimal bitterness and astringency. CPPGFMG showed kokumi-like characteristics reminiscent of glutathione, while FFSLFCLL was undermined by noticeable bitterness. FDRGF, with the highest umami probability of 0.557 and an anti-inflammatory score of 0.78, was crowned the dual-function lead candidate.

Computational docking against three key inflammatory targets, tumor necrosis factor, AKT1, and interleukin-1 beta, predicted favorable binding for all three, with the strongest affinity for AKT1 at a binding energy of minus 9.9 kilocalories per mole. One-hundred-nanosecond molecular dynamics simulations in GROMACS confirmed that the complexes remained stable, with root mean square deviation curves converging to the 1 to 3 angstrom range and residues at the binding interface showing reduced flexibility, a sign of specific and durable engagement. These simulations, the authors note, bridge the gap between static docking snapshots and the dynamic behavior of proteins under physiological conditions, providing structural plausibility for the peptide’s presumed mechanism of interfering with inflammatory cascade initiation.

The decisive test came in RAW 264.7 macrophages, a standard mouse immune cell line. At concentrations from 6.25 to 100 micrograms per milliliter, the peptide showed no cytotoxicity, with viability remaining above 95.28 percent. When the cells were challenged with lipopolysaccharide, a bacterial toxin that drives viability down to about 84 percent and triggers classic inflammatory damage, pre-treatment with the peptide restored metabolic activity in a dose-dependent manner, peaking at 50 micrograms per milliliter. Microscopy showed cells recovering their healthy, spread-out macrophage morphology with visible pseudopodia. More tellingly, the peptide dose-dependently reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species, suppressed NF-kappa-B transcriptional activity in a dual-luciferase reporter assay, and downregulated the protein expression of interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, and the inflammatory enzyme COX-2, the molecular machinery of inflammation itself.

The authors are candid about the limits of their evidence. The immunological findings rest entirely on an in vitro macrophage model of lipopolysaccharide-induced injury, which captures anti-inflammatory performance under stress but cannot represent the full sweep of innate and adaptive immune regulation, and the MTS assay measures metabolic activity rather than complete immune function recovery. Quantitative peptide yield and conversion efficiency were also not determined at this stage. Still, the study stands as a template for how modern food science can pursue two goals at once: an ingredient that delights the palate and, at least in cell culture, calms the inflammatory response. Whether the five-letter peptide FDRGF can carry that promise from the petri dish to the dinner plate will depend on animal and human studies, but as a proof of concept for flavor-functional peptides from underexploited marine protein, it is a savory result in every sense.

Subject of Research: Identification of an umami-tasting, anti-inflammatory peptide from enzymatically hydrolyzed sea cucumber protein

Article Title: Screening and identification of a novel umami peptide with in vitro anti-inflammatory potential from sea cucumber protein: Integration of flavoromics, bioinformatic prediction, molecular simulation and experimental validation

Article References: Chu, Z., Long, C., Xu, K., Zhang, X., Qin, D., Hu, Z., Zhou, Y., Luo, F., & Lin, Q. (2026). Screening and identification of a novel umami peptide with in vitro anti-inflammatory potential from sea cucumber protein: Integration of flavoromics, bioinformatic prediction, molecular simulation and experimental validation. Food Chemistry: X, 39, Article 104580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2026.104580

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.fochx.2026.104580

Keywords: sea cucumber, umami peptide, bioactive peptides, enzymatic hydrolysis, anti-inflammatory, flavoromics, molecular docking, molecular dynamics, RAW 264.7 macrophages, NF-kappa-B, collagen, food chemistry