The research team, led by Sarah Hassaan and Nezir Aydin of Hamad Bin Khalifa University in Qatar together with Brenno C. Menezes of Climbex Global and the Institute for Technological Research in Brazil, approached the question through the lens of industrial ecology, a discipline that treats industrial systems like ecosystems, tracking how materials and energy flow through them. From this perspective, fashion’s environmental crisis is not a series of isolated inefficiencies but a systems failure. Environmental burdens accumulate across every stage of a garment’s life, from raw material extraction and processing to manufacturing, consumption, and disposal, which means that interventions aimed at single stages cannot fix what is fundamentally a broken material cycle. Between 4 and 9 percent of newly produced apparel is disposed of without ever reaching a consumer, and in the United States alone, textile waste reached 17 million tons in 2018, with roughly 85 percent of it landfilled or incinerated.

To diagnose why circular solutions fail to scale, the researchers applied the Denyer and Tranfield systematic review methodology, searching the Scopus database with a carefully constructed Boolean query combining terms for sustainable fashion, lifecycle assessment, circular economy, cradle-to-cradle, and closed-loop systems, along with environmental impact and supply chain concepts. The initial search returned 661 documents. After removing non-peer-reviewed work, studies outside the fashion and textile sectors, and papers that mentioned circularity only in passing without engaging any of the three focal frameworks, the final dataset settled at 110 articles for full-text analysis. Each study was categorized by two researchers working independently, with disagreements resolved by consensus, and the resulting classification matrix mapped circular practices across lifecycle stages, technological readiness levels, and adoptability constraints.

The descriptive findings reveal a field that has exploded in recent years. Research activity was modest between 2014 and 2018, but approximately 86 percent of the analyzed papers were published after 2019, coinciding with the rollout of major European policy initiatives targeting textile waste. Publication volume nearly doubled between 2020 and 2021, and reached 19 articles in 2024. Geographically, however, the literature is heavily concentrated in Europe, driven by the European Union’s circular economy directives and extended producer responsibility policies, with additional contributions from the United States, China, and Australia. Africa and South Asia, regions where much of the world’s textile production and waste generation actually occur, remain critically underrepresented. The authors argue that circular strategies are largely conceptualized in consumption-oriented regions while being operationalized, or failing to be operationalized, in production regions.

At the heart of the review is a technological readiness level analysis that exposes a systemic mismatch. Circular economy concepts, which provide system-level direction on durability, reuse, and recycling but often lack the material and operational mechanisms to close loops in practice, cluster at early stages from TRL 1 to 4. Meanwhile, cradle-to-cradle approaches, which emphasize non-toxic inputs, mono-material construction, and recyclability without quality loss, and closed-loop systems, which embed reverse logistics, take-back schemes, and recycling infrastructure into supply chain design, face their hardest technical realities at TRL 4 to 6. The policy environment, the authors find, fails to bridge these two zones. Early-stage ideas receive conceptual support but no pathway toward material validation, while technically promising mid-stage pilots are starved of the infrastructure investment, standardization, and demand guarantees needed to reach the market. This mid-TRL bottleneck, compounded by regulatory inertia and fragmented governance across supply chain actors, is the central reason circular fashion remains trapped in a landscape of disconnected pilots.

The technical barriers are formidable. Blended textiles such as cotton-polyester fabrics cannot currently be separated without degrading fiber quality, forcing material into downcycling or disposal. Chemical treatments and dyeing processes further reduce recyclability. Advanced recycling methods exist but are often resource-intensive, consuming high levels of energy and water that erode their environmental benefits. Mechanical recycling remains the most widely used industrial approach, but fiber shortening limits its outputs to lower-grade products. Chemical recycling via hydrolysis can depolymerize synthetic fibers like polyester but at high cost and energy demand. Solvent-based dissolution can separate blended fabrics without damaging fibers, yet remains largely at pilot stage, and biological recycling using enzymes is an emerging low-energy option constrained by slow reaction speeds and narrow material requirements. Meanwhile, emerging biomaterials such as bacterial cellulose can cost up to ten times as much as conventional fibers, illustrating the persistent tension between technical feasibility and economic viability.

The review also identifies deeper measurement failures that quietly reinforce the status quo. Roughly 72 percent of the studied approaches focus on material substitution strategies, while only 7 percent address fundamental system redesign. Current sustainability metrics reward efficiency gains within existing linear architectures rather than the structural transformation required for regeneration. The analysis further reveals an equity dimension that is rarely measured at all: capital-intensive technologies like automation, blockchain traceability, and RFID systems deliver impressive performance, achieving up to 99.9 percent inventory accuracy in some deployments, but their cost favors large firms and excludes the small and medium enterprises and informal-sector actors who dominate textile production in developing economies. The authors warn this dynamic risks creating a two-tier circular economy, a circularity for the few, in which leading brands capture sustainability gains while subcontractors and waste workers remain excluded.

Consumer behavior adds another layer of friction. The global second-hand apparel market is now valued at around 36 billion dollars, yet empirical studies across Western and emerging markets consistently show that price, convenience, and perceived quality override environmental concern at the point of purchase. High social media engagement with sustainability content rarely translates into changed buying behavior, echoing long-standing research on the attitude-behavior gap. Rental and resale models perform best where regulation or financial incentives reshape market conditions, such as under France’s anti-waste legislation, suggesting that consumer adoption is structurally constrained by market design rather than by individual preference.

The authors’ prescription is a set of TRL-aware policy mixes calibrated to each stage of innovation maturity. At early TRLs of 1 to 3, they recommend public research grants, open testing platforms, regulatory sandboxes for novel biomaterials, and mandatory disclosure of standardized techno-economic metrics. At the critical mid-TRLs of 4 to 6, where most innovations currently die, they call for shared infrastructure financing through pooled public-private funds, procurement guarantees for recycled fibers and product-as-a-service capacity, common product specifications and digital identifiers, and conditional tax incentives tied to verified recycled content rather than technology inputs. At high TRLs of 7 to 9, tools shift to recycled content mandates, extended producer responsibility schemes that fund processing infrastructure, and auditable performance-based certification. Across all bands, the review stresses that small and medium enterprises need tailored transition support, international standards must align across borders to prevent material leakage, and social-equity indicators should be reported alongside environmental ones to avoid one-dimensional optimization.

Ultimately, the study reframes circular fashion not as a technology problem but as a coordination problem, and in doing so hands policymakers and industry leaders a concrete diagnostic map. The combination of circular economy’s system orientation, cradle-to-cradle’s material purity focus, and closed-loop systems’ operational feedback loops offers the most durable path forward, but only if innovation grants, shared infrastructure, and market demand instruments are deployed at the right stage of technological maturity. Without that alignment, the authors conclude, the fashion sector will continue producing disconnected technical successes, elegant pilots that never scale, while the mountains of textile waste keep growing. The window for turning scattered circular experiments into a genuinely regenerative material system, they argue, depends on treating the supply chain as a single industrial ecosystem rather than a collection of independently optimizing parts.

Subject of Research: Integration of circular economy, cradle-to-cradle, and closed-loop system frameworks across fashion supply chains assessed through an industrial ecology and technology readiness level lens

Article Title: Integrating circular economy, cradle-to-cradle, and closed loop systems in fashion supply chains: a systematic review from an industrial ecology perspective

Article References: Hassaan, S., Aydin, N., & Menezes, B. C. (2026). Integrating circular economy, cradle-to-cradle, and closed loop systems in fashion supply chains: a systematic review from an industrial ecology perspective. Journal of Industrial Ecology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44498-026-00146-5

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44498-026-00146-5

Keywords: circular economy, fashion supply chains, cradle-to-cradle, closed-loop systems, industrial ecology, technology readiness levels, textile recycling, textile waste, sustainable fashion, systematic review, extended producer responsibility, policy alignment

The rising consumption of textiles, particularly those comprised of blended materials like polycotton, has exacerbated the global textile waste crisis. Traditional recycling methods struggle to break down these blended fabrics due to the complex nature of their fibers. The new approach developed by the research team utilizes superconcentrated hydrochloric acid to effectively break down cotton fibers at room temperature without damaging the polyester components. This crucial advancement marks a significant milestone in the ongoing efforts to develop sustainable textile recycling processes.

Cotton, when subjected to this innovative method, is hydrolyzed into glucose, a versatile building block serving numerous applications in biobased product manufacturing. Glucose derived from plant biomass is generally sourced from food crops like corn and wheat, raising concerns about food security and sustainability. The ability to recycle cotton from textile waste into non-food glucose provides a pathway to mitigate these issues while facilitating the transition to a circular economy.

The research not only highlights the effective recovery of glucose but also emphasizes the high efficiency with which polyester remains intact during the process. This dual benefit makes it a leading candidate for industrial application, particularly as demand for recycled polyester increases in textile production. The ability to repurpose polyester effectively contributes to reducing reliance on virgin materials, hence promoting sustainable practices within the fashion and textile industry.

Nienke Leenders, a PhD student under Gruter’s supervision and the paper’s first author, conducted extensive experiments over four years as part of the MiWaTex project, funded by the Dutch Research Council (NWO). This project involves collaboration with various industry partners, including textile sorting and recycling firms, and aims to develop innovative methodologies to improve textile waste processing efficiency. The partnership with stakeholders such as Groenendijk Bedrijfskleding and CuRe exemplifies the multifaceted approach necessary for evolving technological innovations in recycling.

A key aspect of the study is its emphasis on scale and cost-effectiveness. Leenders’ research employed Avantium’s pilot facility to trial the experimental conditions necessary for effective recycling. The pilot plant was designed to handle batches of real post-consumer polycotton waste textiles, demonstrating promising results. The ability to achieve high glucose yields along with the intact polyester suggests that this proposed method is not only feasible but also economically viable for industrial applications.

Furthermore, the glucose produced from this process can serve numerous functions, including the synthesis of polymers, solvents, and resins. Among its potential uses is the production of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA), which is pivotal in manufacturing PEF polyester, a sustainable alternative to conventional PET. This shift opens new avenues for creating plastics that rely on renewable resources, aligning with global sustainability goals and the movement toward bio-based product development.

The research also includes significant findings regarding the efficient recycling of polyester, showcasing its transformation into new virgin-quality polyester through advanced chemical recycling techniques. Tests conducted by CuRe confirm that the integrity of polyester fibers is preserved, allowing for the creation of high-quality recycled materials.

Professor Gruter highlighted the technological and economic assessment performed during the study, suggesting a favorable outlook for the commercialization of this recycling process. With Avantium’s substantial investments and commitment to advancing this technology, the initiative aims to pioneer the large-scale production of non-food glucose derived from textile waste. This innovation not only reinforces the value of recycling within a circular economy but also sets the stage for a competitive advantage in the rapidly evolving landscape of biobased product manufacturing.

As the global community continues to combat the environmental impact of textile waste, the implications of this research extend beyond academic interest. It signifies a roadmap toward widespread textile recycling capabilities that can significantly reduce landfill waste and promote renewable resource utilization. The implications of realizing such a process on an industrial scale could foster transformative change within the fashion and textile industry, encouraging greater responsibility among consumers and manufacturers alike.

With ongoing collaborations and the momentum generated by successful pilot studies, there is optimism surrounding the practical application of these findings. The initiative aligns itself well with international efforts aimed at achieving sustainable development goals, particularly those related to responsible consumption and production. By navigating the complexities of textile waste recycling, the research promises to drive innovation in creating a more sustainable future.

This approach not only addresses pressing environmental challenges but also serves as an inspiration for other sectors facing similar issues concerning resource recovery and circularity. As the cosmetics and materials domains increasingly pivot towards sustainability, the contributions of such research projects will be pivotal in shaping a resilient and responsible industrial landscape.

The project encapsulates a growing trend within scientific research focusing on innovative solutions for established problems, underscoring the continuous need for creative thinking and interdisciplinary collaboration. As metrics for success evolve in the face of burgeoning environmental challenges, the insights gained from this study could very well dictate the dynamics of future textile waste management practices.

In conclusion, the work done at the University of Amsterdam represents a significant leap forward in the race against textile waste and aligns perfectly with the broader goals of sustainability within various industries. With the continuous support from partners and stakeholders, we may soon witness a notable transformation in textile recycling, propelling us towards a more sustainable and circular economic model, significantly reducing the ecological footprint of our apparel consumption.

Subject of Research: Efficient recycling of polycotton textile waste
Article Title: Polycotton waste textile recycling by sequential hydrolysis and glycolysis
News Publication Date: 29-Jan-2025
Web References: Nature Communications
References: Not available
Image Credits: Image: HIMS / Avantium

Keywords: textile recycling, polycotton, glucose, circular economy, sustainability, nature communications, renewable resources, biobased products, polyester recycling, environmental impact, innovation, industrial processes.