Noun concreteness was manipulated to construct the three types. Participants completed a semantic plausibility judgment task while their electroencephalography was recorded continuously and time-locked to the critical words. Metaphorical terms also elicited a more pronounced late positive complex in those learners.

No comparable graded pattern was reported for the lower-proficiency group. The researchers interpreted the response pattern as compatible with the Indirect Categorization Model. Under that model, an intermediate entity connects early embodied simulation with later abstract categorization.

This remains a model-based interpretation of the electrophysiological findings rather than a direct observation of that proposed entity. The measured pattern nevertheless provides electrophysiological evidence consistent with a changing balance between embodied processing and semantic abstraction as advanced learners interpret verbal metaphors. Cross-group comparisons also indicated that lower-proficiency learners struggled to reach a deep level of metaphor comprehension.

The authors associated this difference with more restricted linguistic resources and limited alignment between the learners’ cultural background and the metaphors. The experiment therefore points to second-language proficiency as an important modulator of metaphor processing rather than demonstrating that proficiency by itself accounts for every difference between the groups. The supplied study summary does not provide participant counts, effect sizes or detailed behavioral statistics, so the size and generalizability of the effects cannot be assessed from the reported material alone.

Subject of Research: How second-language proficiency modulates electrophysiological responses during verbal metaphor comprehension

Article Title: The role of L2 proficiency in the embodied and abstract processing of verbal metaphors: an ERP study

Article References: Zeng, X., Chen, L., Fang, W., & Sun, Y. (2026). The role of L2 proficiency in the embodied and abstract processing of verbal metaphors: an ERP study. BMC Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05524-z

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s40359-026-05524-z

Keywords: second-language proficiency, verbal metaphors, event-related potentials, N400 effect, late positive complex, semantic processing, embodied cognition, Chinese L2 learners, metaphor comprehension, role, proficiency, embodied