The research team surveyed professionals working in public and private social services across Spain between June and August 2023. Participants completed an online questionnaire adapted from Spain’s Digital Competence Framework, itself aligned with the European DigComp 2.2 framework. The sample had an average age of 42.9 years and was predominantly female, with women representing 82.6% of respondents. Social Work was the main area of professional training, accounting for 76.7% of the sample, followed by Social Education and Psychology. Just over half worked in the public sector, while others were employed by third-sector organisations or private entities. The survey used 63 yes-or-no items distributed across five competence areas: information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, safety, and problem solving. Researchers converted the responses into standardised scores from zero to 100, then used hierarchical cluster analysis with Ward’s method and squared Euclidean distance to detect groups with similar patterns of competence.

Across the sample, average performance was approximately 70% in most areas, but the overall figures concealed pronounced differences between individuals. Communication and collaboration was the strongest dimension, indicating that routine digital messaging, media sharing, online procedures and basic interaction are widely established in professional practice. Digital content creation was the weakest area overall. The distinction matters because content creation involves more than producing ordinary documents: it can include selecting tools for a particular purpose, integrating material from different sources, managing web content, understanding licensing, using artificial intelligence and producing complex resources for others. The study also found substantial variation in problem solving, the capacity to diagnose and resolve technical difficulties without immediately relying on external support. Safety scores were generally adequate, particularly for passwords, digital certificates and secure transactions, although digital well-being and misinformation protection were less consistent. Information and data literacy showed a similar pattern: basic tasks were common, while analytical and more advanced uses of information were much less widespread.

Cluster analysis produced three groups with statistically significant differences across all five dimensions. The first, comprising 283 professionals, was described as a consolidating profile. Its average digital competence score was 72.15, close to the overall sample level, and its members had an average age of 41.8 years. About one-third held postgraduate qualifications, and employment was divided relatively evenly between the public sector and other organisations. This group was capable in routine communication and collaboration and could usually resolve basic technical problems, but its performance declined when tasks required more specialised content production, advanced analysis or creative uses of technology. Only 16.3% reported using artificial intelligence tools for content creation, while 19.8% managed website content and 17.0% could debug code. In problem solving, 91.2% could resolve basic technical issues independently, but only 47.7% reported creative uses of technology. The group’s self-assessment averaged 6.72 out of 10, lower than might be expected from its measured score, suggesting caution or awareness of the complexity of digital work.

The second group, containing 152 professionals, showed the strongest performance. This advanced profile had a mean competence score of 89.77 and was the youngest of the three groups, with an average age of 40.2 years. More than half held master’s or doctoral qualifications, and the group had a lower representation in the public sector than the other profiles. Its members performed strongly in every competence area, particularly in digital content creation and problem solving. Their mean score for content creation was 81.47, and their problem-solving score reached 93.26. Nearly all could address routine technical problems, while 97.4% reported responding proactively to their own digital needs and 99.3% to the needs of others. The group also showed the highest engagement with training or self-directed learning, reported by 90.8% of its members. Advanced capabilities were not limited to personal use: participants commonly helped colleagues search for and verify information, selected tools according to content needs, produced complex content for third parties and used digital resources for creative or civic purposes. Their self-perceived competence, 7.82 out of 10, was still below the level indicated by the broader assessment.

The third group, comprising 106 professionals, had the lowest measured competence, with a mean score of 52.62. Its members were older on average, at 49.5 years, had the longest average tenure in their current organisations, at approximately 15 years, and were predominantly employed in public administration. Only 20.6% held postgraduate qualifications. The largest gaps appeared in digital content creation and problem solving, where mean scores were 38.05 and 32.23, respectively. Fewer than half could solve a simple video-call problem or independently search online for a solution, and only 9.4% used technology creatively. Use of artificial intelligence tools for content creation was reported by 7.5%, while only 8.5% reported debugging programmes and 16.0% using smart-home technologies. Communication skills were also limited when tasks moved beyond essential functions: 16.0% co-edited documents and 21.7% could explain collaborative digital services to others. Safety was a relative strength, but weaknesses remained in app-permission management and protection against misinformation. This group rated its own competence at 5.93 out of 10, slightly higher than its measured performance, a mismatch that could reduce motivation to seek training.

Differences between the profiles were not merely statistical. The researchers calculated partial eta-squared values to estimate how much variation in each competence dimension was associated with cluster membership. The values ranged from 0.237 for safety to 0.619 for problem solving, with particularly strong separation in problem solving, content creation and communication. The results therefore point to distinct patterns of capability rather than a simple continuum in which every skill rises at the same rate. The advanced group was consistently above the sample average, while the constrained group was below it in all five dimensions. The consolidating group occupied an intermediate position, with notable competence in communication and collaboration but less confidence or experience with complex tasks. Item-level results also revealed that basic digital activity is not equivalent to digital maturity. For example, many professionals could organise files, exchange messages or use secure transactions, yet far fewer could analyse data, manage online content, apply artificial intelligence or create sophisticated solutions for colleagues and clients.

The findings have direct implications for social services, where professionals handle sensitive information about people’s finances, family circumstances, health, legal situations and use of support. Digital case-management platforms and interconnected regional systems can improve continuity and coordination, but they also raise demands for privacy, cybersecurity, ethical decision-making and careful communication. The authors argue that digital competence should therefore be treated as a professional requirement linked to service quality and the protection of users’ rights, not as an optional technical extra. They recommend strengthening foundational skills and learning networks for the constrained profile, helping the consolidating group progress toward advanced competence, and supporting advanced professionals as digital mentors or agents of organisational change. Training should also address digital well-being. The intermediate group reported particular difficulties with posture and screen-time control, illustrating how frequent technology use can coexist with occupational vulnerability and technostress. Sustainable digital transformation will require organisational investment, protected time for learning and policies that treat continuous development as a professional right rather than a one-time response to new software.

The study’s conclusions should be interpreted alongside its limitations. Because participation relied on an online questionnaire, the sample may overrepresent professionals already comfortable with digital tools. The instrument measured self-reported competence rather than performance observed in practical tasks, leaving room for self-efficacy and social-desirability bias. Spain’s decentralised social services system also varies across autonomous communities in administration, resources, infrastructure and organisational culture, but the available data did not allow those regional differences to be analysed in detail. Even so, the three-profile structure provides a useful framework for planning more precise interventions. The researchers call for regular competence assessments, longitudinal studies and evaluations conducted before and after training. Such work could show whether targeted programmes improve practical ability, reduce digital stress and strengthen service delivery without widening inequalities between organisations. As social services continue to adopt digital records, remote communication, automated processes and emerging artificial-intelligence tools, the central challenge will be ensuring that technological change expands professional capacity and client access rather than reproducing existing divisions inside the system.

Subject of Research: Digital competence profiles among social services professionals in Spain

Article Title: Assessment of digital competences: characterisation of professional profiles in Spanish social services

Article References: Gómez-Rasco, T., Fernández-Borrero, M. A., Muñoz-Moreno, R., & Ferri-Fuentevilla, E. (2026). Assessment of digital competences: characterisation of professional profiles in Spanish social services. SN Social Sciences, 6(9), Article 390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-026-01666-4

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s43545-026-01666-4

Keywords: digital competence, social services, Spain, DigComp 2.2, digital skills, professional training, digital resilience, problem solving, digital well-being, Assessment, digital, competences

Digital transformation in healthcare encompasses a wide range of technologies, from telemedicine and electronic health records to artificial intelligence and data analytics. As these technologies reshape service delivery models, the role of e-leaders takes center stage. E-leadership refers to the capacity of leaders to effectively harness digital tools and innovations to improve organizational performance and patient outcomes. The need for adept e-leaders has never been more pressing, considering the complexities involved in integrating technology within healthcare.

The qualitative study conducted by Kaihlanen and colleagues involved a comprehensive analysis of the perspectives held by healthcare professionals about the skills and qualities required for effective e-leadership. Through interviews and focus group discussions, these professionals articulated their expectations, shedding light on what they believe contributes to successful leadership in a predominantly digital workspace. These insights provide a notable resource for shaping future e-leadership training and development initiatives.

One of the primary expectations expressed by participants in the study focused on the importance of ongoing digital literacy. In a world that is ever-evolving, healthcare professionals emphasized the necessity for e-leaders to remain up-to-date with technological innovations and digital tools. This continuous learning is pivotal, not only for fostering personal growth but also for enhancing the overall capacity of healthcare organizations to adapt to changing circumstances.

Integration of technology into healthcare systems is not merely a matter of adopting new tools; it is about creating a culture that thrives on innovation. The researchers found that health and social care professionals expect e-leaders to advocate for a culture of continuous improvement. This expectation reflects a growing understanding that technological advancements necessitate a shift in organizational mindset—a shift that involves encouraging experimentation, embracing feedback, and learning from failures.

Moreover, the study highlights the necessity of emotional intelligence as a crucial trait for e-leaders. In the frenetic environment of healthcare, the capacity to engage, motivate, and inspire teams is vital. Effective communication of digital objectives and fostering a collaborative environment were underscored as key responsibilities for e-leaders who aspire to enhance team performance and resilience in times of transformation.

The research also revealed a demand for e-leaders to possess strategic vision and foresight. Health and social care professionals articulated the importance of having leaders who can anticipate future trends and challenges. This strategic foresight enables e-leaders to direct their organizations effectively, ensuring that they remain agile and responsive amidst the pressures and demands of an ever-evolving digital landscape.

Analyzing the findings through the lens of practical implications, the study illustrates how e-leadership can effectively bridge gaps between technology and human interaction. The emphasis on empathetic leadership underscores the notion that technology should be utilized to augment, rather than replace, the human element in healthcare. By nurturing strong interpersonal relationships, e-leaders can enhance teamwork and cooperation while ensuring that patients remain at the core of care delivery.

Additionally, the research highlights the necessity for e-leaders to engage actively with their teams in decision-making processes. Participatory leadership approaches that involve soliciting input from various stakeholders were identified as instrumental in fostering a sense of ownership and accountability. In a health care context, where multidisciplinary collaboration is critical, an inclusive leadership style can contribute significantly to the successful integration of digital tools.

Furthermore, the findings emphasize the importance of aligning e-leadership with ethical considerations in digital health. As the integration of technology introduces new ethical dilemmas, such as data privacy and security concerns, e-leaders must exhibit a commitment to ethical practices. This ensures that the deployment of technology serves to enhance patient safety and trust, reinforcing the fundamental ethos of healthcare.

The implications of this research extend beyond merely framing expectations; they also call for concrete actions to cultivate effective e-leadership. Training and development programs tailored to address the specific competencies and skills identified in the study will be vital for equipping healthcare professionals with the necessary tools to navigate digital transformation challenges effectively.

In an interconnected world, the collaboration of various stakeholders—including technological experts, policy-makers, and healthcare professionals—will be pivotal in shaping the future of e-leadership in healthcare. As technology continues to advance, fostering a collective approach towards embracing digital leadership will reinforce the resilience of healthcare systems and empower them to respond to emerging trends.

Ultimately, the study by Kaihlanen and colleagues serves as a crucial stepping stone toward understanding the landscape of e-leadership in healthcare. As the digital revolution unfolds, the insights gleaned will play an instrumental role in nurturing the next generation of healthcare leaders. By recognizing and addressing the multi-faceted expectations for e-leadership, the sector can ensure that it remains responsive and effective in fulfilling its commitment to delivering high-quality care in a digitally transformed reality.

The future of e-leadership in healthcare hinges upon our ability to adapt to evolving circumstances and harness the potential of technology in ways that respect the human aspect of care. As shared expectations among health and social care professionals become clearer, we can build robust frameworks for leadership that will navigate this uncharted territory and ensure that patient care remains at the forefront of this digital transformation.

Subject of Research: Expectations of health and social care professionals for e-leadership in the context of digital transformation.

Article Title: Health and social care professionals’ expectations for e-leadership in the digital transformation: a qualitative study.

Article References: Kaihlanen, AM., Kainiemi, E., Virtanen, L. et al. Health and social care professionals’ expectations for e-leadership in the digital transformation: a qualitative study.
BMC Health Serv Res 25, 1498 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-025-13740-3

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-025-13740-3

Keywords: e-leadership, digital transformation, healthcare, social care, leadership qualities, digital literacy, emotional intelligence, strategic vision, ethical considerations.