The scale of the problem the researchers document is stark. In 2023, estimates suggested that around 500,000 AI-generated non-consensual intimate videos existed online. By 2025, that figure had grown to an estimated 8 million, with the overwhelming majority of targets being women and girls. The ease with which such content can now be generated from a single photograph, and then distributed through websites, social media platforms and private messaging services, many of them protected by end-to-end encryption, has allowed the volume of material to multiply at a pace that far outstrips current responses.

The harms associated with this form of digital abuse are increasingly well documented. Sarah Morgan noted that anyone with a single photo available online can be quickly and easily targeted in content that falsely depicts them in sexual or intimate contexts of any nature, without their consent, and that emerging evidence demonstrates the wide-ranging and persistent harms of this abuse. A 2024 investigation by Channel 4 News found that almost four thousand famous people were listed across five of the most visited deepfake pornography websites, including female actors, journalists, musicians, television stars and YouTubers whose faces had been superimposed onto pornographic material using artificial intelligence. Industry analysis cited in the study further indicated that 40 of the most visited deepfake pornography sites had accumulated more than four billion views.

To understand how these sites survive online, the research team examined the technical architecture that underpins them. Infrastructure, in this context, refers to the technologies and systems, such as website hosting, domain name servers and content delivery networks, that enable a website to deliver content to users. Without these services, a site cannot successfully function, no matter where in the world its operators are based. This dependency creates a potential point of leverage: if infrastructure providers refuse to serve sites hosting abusive content, those sites become dramatically harder to reach.

The study is the first systematic attempt to identify and name the key players, whether knowingly or unknowingly, facilitating the technological infrastructure supporting sites that host AI-generated non-consensual intimate imagery. The researchers identified 88 sites hosting such content, of which 38 exclusively hosted it. In capturing contextual data relating to each site, they found that some hosted hundreds of thousands of videos. The content primarily targeted Hollywood and Hindi-film stars, K-pop idols, and well-known feminists and activists, with nearly all of the material featuring females.

Among the findings, five key players emerged as the dominant infrastructure providers enabling the sites to function, with Cloudflare identified as the most recurring name. The team also assessed how easily the sites could be found through ordinary web searches, revealing that 93 percent of them were readily discoverable via Google Search. This discoverability matters because it means that victims, and indeed anyone curious, can stumble upon the abusive material with minimal effort, amplifying the reach and impact of the original violation.

Legislative responses are beginning to emerge in several jurisdictions. England and Wales, among other countries, have moved to criminalise the sharing, creating or soliciting of AI-generated non-consensual intimate imagery. However, Morgan argues that legislation alone is not enough. Such laws will offer some deterrence, she said, but further steps are needed to prevent the abuse from occurring in the first place. She posed the question of whether the distribution supply can be cut, arguing that this abuse needs to be prevented and that putting pressure on the technology platforms which distribute such content to the public may be the most optimal chance of reducing what she described as the wildfire spread of AI-generated sexual abuse.

The researchers issued specific technical recommendations for infrastructure providers. They call on the companies facilitating AI-NCII-hosting sites to take a firm stance on the abusive content: providers should block sites that exclusively host AI-generated non-consensual intimate imagery, and suspend services for sites that host such content within a larger offering until good-faith efforts are made to remove the abuse. They also recommend deploying preventative safeguards, such as utilising perceptual hashing to extract digital signatures of confirmed abusive content and stop its redistribution. Perceptual hashing is a technique that generates a fingerprint of an image or video based on its visual characteristics, allowing identical or near-identical copies to be detected and blocked even if file names or metadata are changed, a method already used against child sexual abuse material and terrorist content on major platforms.

Dr Sophie Nightingale added that it is also time to stop blaming the targets of this abuse. All too often, she said, the victims of abuse that is sexual in nature are attributed responsibility, and there is an urgent need to change this. Blame, she argued, should be assigned to the perpetrators who create, distribute and facilitate the sharing of fake content that has the potential to ruin lives. This reframing shifts the focus from questions about what victims did or did not share online to the conduct of those who manufacture the imagery and the companies whose services make its distribution possible.

The Lancaster University team is continuing to examine the impacts and harms of non-consensual intimate imagery more broadly, and has opened a confidential survey inviting people to share their views on how this abuse could be tackled or to describe their own experiences. As the volume of AI-generated sexual abuse material continues to climb, the study’s central message is that the responsibility cannot rest with victims or with criminal law alone. The companies that provide the hosting, domain and delivery services forming the backbone of the web now face a direct, evidence-based call to action: identify the abuse on your network, cut off the sites built on it, and deploy the technical tools that already exist to stop the spread.

Subject of Research: Infrastructure providers enabling AI-generated non-consensual intimate imagery websites

Article Title: Call for technology providers to take action on AI non-consensual ‘deepfake pornography’

Article References: Call for technology providers to take action on AI non-consensual ‘deepfake pornography’. (n.d.). Original publication

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: Not provided

Keywords: deepfake pornography, AI-NCII, Cloudflare, infrastructure, perceptual hashing, Lancaster University, Journal of Online Trust and Safety, content delivery networks, non-consensual intimate imagery, online abuse, digital harms, platform regulation

The authors argue that while digital devices empower youth, they also pose significant risks. Current research paradigms focusing on social media failures must adapt to encompass the complex and multifaceted implications of AI. As the digital environment shifts, traditional methodologies face significant challenges in capturing the dynamism of AI interactions. The emphasis here is on understanding how these technologies impact young users not merely as isolated entities but as parts of a larger ecosystem of digital engagement and mental health.

A crucial aspect that the paper addresses is the fragmented nature of existing studies surrounding AI’s impact on youth. Researchers have pointed out critical limitations in our understanding, including the predominance of purely correlational findings that do not explore causation. Poorly designed studies can overlook the nuances of individual experiences with digital technology. The absence of longitudinal studies particularly stalls our understanding of how sustained AI interactions over time affect mental health trajectories.

Moreover, the research calls attention to over-simplified narratives that characterize social media as a singular harmful entity, much like the emerging portrayal of AI. The authors stress the importance of dissecting the various modes of interaction that young people have with these technologies, along with the significant contextual factors that influence their experiences. By treating AI interactions as a composite of personal and socio-environmental variables, researchers can better forecast potential risks and benefits associated with AI.

Dr. Karen Mansfield, a postdoctoral researcher at the Oxford Internet Institute and lead author, articulates the urgency surrounding this research framework. She asserts that as youngsters adopt AI technologies to navigate their daily lives, outdated frameworks will lead to delayed and ineffective policy responses. An interactive approach involving stakeholders—researchers, policymakers, tech giants, caregivers, and adolescents themselves—is crucial for developing effective safeguards and educational initiatives that adapt to the evolving digital landscape.

Indeed, the implications of neglecting these complexities are manifold. With AI offerings rapidly increasing in sophistication, particularly in areas such as personalized content and adaptive learning environments, the potential for both positive and negative impacts on youth mental health is profound. Thus, the authors advocate for a shift in research paradigms—one that transcends critically narrow approaches to focus on comprehensive, evidence-based methodologies that prioritize the wellbeing of young users.

The paper proceeds to recommend pathways for meaningful collaboration between various stakeholders to ensure the formation of an informed, accountable AI landscape. Effective research must engage with young users as active participants in the conversation about how AI can enhance or detract from their mental health experiences. By contributing lived experiences and insights, youth can inform research and technological development in ways that genuinely reflect their needs and concerns.

Policy implications stemming from this research are equally vital. The growing interdependence of AI and youth engagement demands dedicated, actionable strategies for regulating these technologies within digital spaces where children and teens operate. Without a systematic approach for policy development that is critically informed by research findings, there is a risk of repeating history, wherein reactive measures come too late to thwart emerging issues around mental health and wellbeing.

As AI continues to integrate deeper into everyday life, the authors emphasize the importance of developing clear regulatory frameworks that honor the complexity of digital interactions. Strategies that rely solely on problematization may stifle positive advancements and deter beneficial guidance for both young audiences and their caregivers. Awareness and education about responsible AI use are imperative, and researchers must advocate for a cultural shift that embraces these discussions openly.

In conclusion, the forthcoming era of AI demands rigorous and dynamic research methodologies that reflect the complexities of youth interactions with these technologies. Researchers are called to design studies that not only capture but also contextualize interactions with AI, understanding its implications through longitudinal and causal lenses instead of the traditionally narrow frames fostered by earlier social media discussions. The aim is to cultivate a safer and healthier digital environment where AI technology genuinely contributes to the positive development of children and adolescents.

The findings by the Oxford Internet Institute reflect not just the current state of affairs but serve as a warning to prepare for the forthcoming implications of AI on youth wellbeing. It’s clear that both academia and industry must work collaboratively to develop strategies that promote responsible and ethical use of AI among young users.

Subject of Research: The impact of artificial intelligence on youth mental health
Article Title: From Social Media to Artificial Intelligence: Improving Research on Digital Harms in Youth
News Publication Date: 21 January 2025
Web References: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanchi/article/PIIS2352-4642(24)00332-8/fulltext
References: Not provided
Image Credits: Not provided
Keywords: Artificial intelligence, youth mental health, research framework, digital technology, social media, regulatory policy.