The rationale for splitting the resin into two infusions lies in its fundamentally dual nature. Frankincense resin is composed of three fractions: a volatile oil responsible for its characteristic aroma, an alcohol-soluble resin fraction rich in pentacyclic triterpenic acids known as boswellic acids, and a water-soluble gum fraction consisting mainly of polysaccharides and oligosaccharides. The boswellic acids, including β-boswellic acid, 11-keto-β-boswellic acid, and acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid, are lipophilic molecules that have been reported to modulate inflammatory pathways by inhibiting pro-inflammatory enzymes such as 5-lipoxygenase and human leukocyte elastase. The gum fraction, by contrast, holds hydrophilic polysaccharides that can contribute to skin hydration and barrier support. Capturing both in one topical product, the researchers reasoned, could deliver complementary bioactives through a single emulsion.

To prepare the infusions, the team ground the resin into a fine powder with a household coffee grinder to maximize surface area, then macerated 10-gram portions separately in 40 grams of sweet almond oil and 40 grams of Madinah rosewater. Each mixture was heated to 75 °C for one hour with occasional stirring, allowed to stand at room temperature for three days, and filtered through muslin cloth. The resulting oil and water infusions were stored in amber bottles under refrigeration until analysis. The extraction conditions were deliberately gentle, avoiding organic solvents entirely, which the authors argue preserves the all-natural character of the final cosmetic product.

Qualitative phytochemical screening revealed sharply distinct chemical profiles in the two media. The oil infusion gave strong positive reactions in the Salkowski and Liebermann-Burchard tests, confirming abundant triterpenoids and steroids, while the acetylation test detected hydroxyl functional groups characteristic of boswellic acid derivatives. The water infusion told a different story: a vigorous foam test indicated saponins, Dragendorff’s and Mayer’s reagent tests revealed trace alkaloids, and Fehling’s and Molisch tests pointed to reducing sugars and carbohydrates. Ferric chloride testing showed only faint phenolic responses in both infusions. These results confirmed that maceration in almond oil preferentially pulled the lipophilic terpenic and resinous constituents into solution, while rosewater extracted the hydrophilic polysaccharides, saponins, and minor alkaloids.

Antioxidant activity was assessed with the DPPH free radical scavenging assay, a widely used colorimetric method in which the purple DPPH radical loses absorbance at 517 nm as antioxidants neutralize it. Four samples were compared: plain almond oil, the frankincense oil infusion, plain rosewater, and the frankincense rosewater infusion. The oil infusion dominated, achieving 71 percent inhibition at a concentration of 343.46 ± 34.2 μg/mL. The rosewater infusion followed with 57 percent inhibition at 275.74 ± 46.4 μg/mL, plain rosewater showed 53 percent at 256.39 ± 38.9 μg/mL, and plain almond oil trailed at 40 percent and 193.50 ± 28.1 μg/mL. The standard antioxidant gallic acid reached 97 percent inhibition at 483.75 ± 27.4 μg/mL. The strong performance of the oil infusion, the authors attribute to its abundance of lipophilic boswellic acids and terpenoids, many of which are known to neutralize free radicals and modulate oxidative pathways.

With both infusions characterized, the team formulated a water-in-oil cream using a simple beeswax-almond oil-rosewater base. The oil phase combined 30 grams of frankincense oil infusion with 7.5 grams of beeswax and was heated to 75 °C until the wax melted. The aqueous phase, 14 to 23 grams of frankincense rosewater infusion depending on the batch, was heated separately to the same temperature and then added slowly into the oily phase with continuous stirring. The mixture was cooled while stirring until it thickened into a smooth, homogeneous cream. A plain control cream was prepared identically using uninfused almond oil and rosewater. Beeswax served triple duty as emulsifier, thickener, and semi-occlusive barrier former, while almond oil contributed vitamin E and emollient properties and Madinah rosewater added aroma, cooling effects, and its own antioxidant and antibacterial constituents.

Physicochemical evaluation showed the frankincense cream outperforming the plain control in several respects. The infusion-based formulation displayed an appealing fawn color, a pleasant aroma from its volatile oils and terpenoids, and a pH of 7.28, within the acceptable range for topical products though slightly above the skin’s natural surface pH of about 5.5. Its viscosity of approximately 1,200 centipoise was somewhat lower than the plain cream’s 1,350 centipoise, and rheological testing revealed shear-thinning behavior, a desirable non-Newtonian property that allows the cream to spread easily under mechanical stress while remaining stable at rest. Spreadability testing showed the frankincense cream spreading in 7 seconds versus 8 to 10 seconds for the plain version, and it washed off skin more readily.

Stability testing delivered the study’s most encouraging formulation results. Stored at 4 °C, room temperature, and 40 °C, and subjected to three freeze-thaw cycles, the frankincense cream showed no visible phase separation, liquefaction, or grittiness, whereas the plain cream exhibited a little phase separation and immediate liquefaction. The authors suggest that interactions between the resin’s boswellic acids and the cream’s lipid phase may have reinforced the structural matrix, consistent with reports that bioactive compounds in other herbal creams, such as those containing lavender and aloe vera, enhance thermal resilience. Delayed liquefaction between 40 and 60 °C further indicated improved thermal stability over the control.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy provided chemical confirmation that the manufacturing process preserved the resin’s functional groups. The pure resin spectrum showed characteristic absorption bands at 3,382 cm⁻¹ for hydroxyl stretching and at 2,971, 1,711, 1,452, 1,378, 1,264, 1,048, and 880 cm⁻¹ for carbon-hydrogen stretching, carbonyl stretching, and other vibrations. The oil and water infusions displayed modified but recognizable peak patterns confirming successful extraction of both lipophilic and hydrophilic resin components. Critically, the final cream spectrum retained bands at 3,451, 2,921, 1,744, 1,462, 1,375, 1,238, 1,029, and 723 cm⁻¹, matching the frankincense functional groups, along with peaks at 1,653 and 1,514 cm⁻¹ resembling the water infusion. The plain cream lacked these bands entirely, and the similarity between the plain and frankincense cream spectra indicated no significant chemical interactions between the resin constituents and the cream base.

The authors are careful to frame the work as preliminary. The phytochemical characterization was qualitative only, so future studies should quantify specific boswellic acids, terpenes, and polysaccharides using HPLC, LC-MS, or GC-MS to correlate chemistry with activity. The DPPH assay, though widely employed, is a chemical model rather than a biological one, and complementary cell-based antioxidant and anti-inflammatory assays are needed. Cytotoxicity testing in keratinocyte or fibroblast cell lines, in vitro skin permeation studies, and formal irritancy and sensitization testing must precede any clinical evaluation, and formulation adjustments should bring the pH closer to the skin’s natural acidity. Molecular docking and mechanistic investigations could clarify how boswellic acids interact with targets in oxidative stress and skin aging pathways. Still, the study demonstrates that an ancient resin can be transformed, using nothing more exotic than almond oil, rosewater, and beeswax, into a stable modern emulsion that eliminates alcohol, mineral oil, parabens, phthalates, sodium lauryl sulfate, and propylene glycol. With its dual oil- and water-soluble bioactive fractions, frankincense resin offers a genuinely multifunctional opportunity for natural anti-aging skincare, pending the safety and bioavailability studies that will determine whether the laboratory promise translates to the pharmacy shelf.

Subject of Research: Pharmaceutical Sciences

Article Title: Qualitative phytochemical profiling, antioxidant activity, and development of a water-in-oil cream containing combined oil and water infusions of frankincense resin (Boswellia spp.): a preliminary in vitro study

Article References: Javed, S., Salawi, A., Moni, S. S., Ahsan, W., Khuwaja, G., Alam, M. S., Sivadasan, D., Jabeen, A., Aziabi, M. Y., Suwaydi, H. M., Alajam, T. E. M., Nammazi, A. Y. M., & Kadumi, N. M. A. (2026). Qualitative phytochemical profiling, antioxidant activity, and development of a water-in-oil cream containing combined oil and water infusions of frankincense resin (Boswellia spp.): a preliminary in vitro study. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 29, Article 15609. https://doi.org/10.3389/jpps.2026.15609

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3389/jpps.2026.15609

Keywords: frankincense, Boswellia, boswellic acids, antioxidant, cosmetics, cream formulation, DPPH, natural skincare, Qualitative, phytochemical, profiling, activity

The production challenge is more technical than it might sound. Geranic acid, formally E-3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienoic acid, occurs naturally in plants but at abundances too low and compositions too variable for commercial extraction. The industry has therefore relied on chemical oxidation of geraniol or citral, routes that lack stereoselectivity and produce mixtures of cis and trans isomers along with impurities such as nerol and citronellol. That matters biologically, because the trans form of geranic acid exhibits substantially higher activity than its cis counterpart. Chemical synthesis also demands harsh reagents and generates toxic byproducts, conflicting with green chemistry principles and complicating downstream purification.

To sidestep these problems, the team turned to biology. In living systems, geranic acid is generated through the NAD+-dependent oxidation of geranial, a reaction catalyzed by geranial dehydrogenase, an enzyme known from certain plants and microbes. The researchers screened databases including Biocyc, NCBI, BRENDA, and UniProt for homologous enzymes sharing 30 to 90 percent sequence identity with a previously reported geranial dehydrogenase, identifying ten candidates. Among them, an enzyme designated KDI24_07135 from a Pseudomonas species, later attributed to the bacterium Castellaniella defragrans, showed the highest catalytic activity. The 478-amino-acid protein, with a predicted molecular mass of 50.57 kilodaltons and a theoretical isoelectric point of 5.02, was codon-optimized for expression in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) and cloned into a pET-28a(+) vector.

Scaling up the enzyme supply required high-density fed-batch fermentation in a 10-liter glass bioreactor. The team grew the engineered bacteria to an optical density at 600 nanometers of 30 to 40, induced expression with 0.1 millimolar IPTG at 30 degrees Celsius for six hours, and harvested the cells by high-pressure homogenization to obtain crude enzyme extract. The resulting biocatalytic system, run in a 300-milliliter reaction containing 20 grams per liter citral, 2 millimolar NAD+, and cell lysates carrying both the dehydrogenase and an NADH oxidase, converted more than 90 percent of the citral to geranic acid in 12 hours at 30 degrees Celsius and pH 8.0, yielding a product titer of approximately 15 grams per liter.

The cofactor recycling step is central to the process economics. NAD+ acts as an essential redox cofactor in the oxidation, but intracellular pools are constantly catabolized and must be efficiently recycled to maintain metabolic flux. The team paired the dehydrogenase with an NADH oxidase that uses oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor, regenerating NAD+ while producing only water as a byproduct. This arrangement conforms to green chemistry principles and reduces purification burdens. The purified product was characterized by gas chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, which showed a dominant peak accounting for over 98 percent of the total ion current, and by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, which confirmed the chemical identity and revealed no resolvable impurity peaks.

With high-purity trans-geranic acid in hand, the researchers shifted to the biological question: does the molecule protect skin cells from UVB damage? They used HaCaT human immortalized keratinocytes, exposing them to a single calibrated UVB dose of 15 millijoules per square centimeter and treating them immediately afterward with geranic acid for 24 hours. First, they confirmed safety: geranic acid showed no obvious cytotoxicity across 0 to 250 milligrams per liter, with cell viability remaining above 90 percent after 24 hours. They then selected three doses, 62.5, 125, and 250 milligrams per liter, for the protective experiments.

The photoprotective effects emerged across multiple layers. UVB irradiation triggered a substantial rise in intracellular reactive oxygen species, which geranic acid suppressed dose-dependently. The treatment also reduced accumulation of malondialdehyde, a core marker of lipid peroxidation, and restored the activities of two key endogenous antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, which UVB had markedly suppressed. At the organelle level, JC-1 staining showed that UVB caused mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization, and geranic acid reversed this loss, with medium and high concentrations showing the most prominent effects. Because mitochondrial dysfunction is both a cause and a consequence of oxidative stress, this restoration suggests the molecule acts at the source of the damage cascade rather than merely mopping up downstream radicals.

The team then probed the inflammatory and calcium signaling pathways. UVB exposure upregulated secretion of the pro-inflammatory mediators MCP-1 and IL-6, which geranic acid markedly suppressed in a dose-dependent manner. Fluo-4 AM fluorescence detection revealed that UVB induced a massive influx of intracellular calcium, and this overload was effectively attenuated by the treatment. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that UVB upregulated expression of TRPV1, a calcium-permeable ion channel implicated in skin inflammation and pain, and of NF-κB, a transcription factor central to inflammatory signaling. Geranic acid downregulated both proteins, consistent with its inhibitory effects on calcium influx and cytokine secretion. The researchers interpret this as evidence that the molecule acts on the TRPV1/NF-κB axis, a pathway not previously linked to geranic acid in photodamage models.

Downstream of oxidative stress and inflammation lie DNA damage and cellular senescence, and here too the treatment showed protective activity. Immunofluorescence analysis of γ-H2AX foci, a sensitive marker of DNA double-strand breaks, showed that UVB increased foci formation and that geranic acid significantly reduced this accumulation. Western blot analysis demonstrated that UVB upregulated the senescence-associated proteins p16 and p21, and this upregulation was effectively reversed by the treatment. The team also measured secretion of matrix metalloproteinases MMP-1 and MMP-3, enzymes that degrade the extracellular matrix during photodamage and photoaging. Geranic acid dose-dependently attenuated the upregulation of both, suggesting a protective effect against UVB-induced extracellular matrix damage.

The authors acknowledge several limitations. Substrate concentrations in the biocatalytic system were restricted to prevent enzyme inhibition, and all biological evaluations were conducted in vitro in HaCaT cells, requiring further validation in animal models and human skin tissue. The molecular basis underlying geranic acid-mediated modulation of the calcium/TRPV1/NF-κB signaling axis in skin photodamage models remains to be fully elucidated. Regulatory authorities have classified geranic acid as a safe flavoring substance with low acute toxicity, yet its dermatological and photoprotective applications lack formal evaluation, leaving a critical gap for cosmeceutical development. The study, funded without external financial support and conducted entirely by researchers employed by PROYA Cosmetics, provides both a sustainable biomanufacturing strategy and mechanistic foundations for developing geranic acid as a natural anti-photodamage active ingredient for cosmetic and dermatological applications.

Subject of Research: Biotechnology

Article Title: Enzymatic synthesis of geranic acid and its protective effects against UVB-induced skin photodamage

Article References: Lin, J., Zhang, P., Wang, X., Xuan, L., Zhang, S., Wang, J., & Huang, H. (2026). Enzymatic synthesis of geranic acid and its protective effects against UVB-induced skin photodamage. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 14, Article 1891436. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2026.1891436

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2026.1891436

Keywords: geranic acid, enzymatic synthesis, UVB photodamage, keratinocytes, biocatalysis, skin aging, cosmetics, monoterpenoid, Enzymatic, synthesis, geranic, acid

The central innovation of the new method is what it leaves out. Most established PFAS protocols, including the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s drinking water methods 537.1 and 533, depend on solid-phase extraction, or SPE, a cleanup step in which the sample is passed through a specialized cartridge that captures the PFAS molecules while letting other components wash away. SPE is effective for water, but it is time-consuming, costly, and poorly suited to the messy reality of consumer products, where waxes, pigments, polymers, and surfactants can clog cartridges and distort results. Few existing methods are tailored for consumer products at all. The team’s alternative applies co-solvation extraction, in which solvents are blended to dissolve both the PFAS and the product matrix simultaneously, followed directly by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, LC-MS/MS, without any cartridge cleanup in between.

Two additional technical refinements give the co-solvation approach its sensitivity. The first is large-volume injection: instead of introducing a small slug of extract into the chromatograph, the method injects a much larger volume, which pushes more PFAS molecules into the detector at once and thereby lowers the concentration needed for reliable detection. The second is co-injection of 0.1 percent acetic acid alongside the extract. This weak acid modifies the ionization behavior of acidic PFAS species as they enter the mass spectrometer, significantly enhancing both detection limits and the peak shapes of the PFAS signals. Sharper peaks matter enormously in tandem mass spectrometry, because broad or tailing peaks overlap with matrix interferences and make quantification unreliable. By improving peak shape at the source, the acetic acid co-injection allows the instrument to distinguish genuine PFAS signals from the chemical noise of the product extract.

The researchers evaluated the method across six consumer product categories: paper, plastics, fabrics, cosmetics, metals, and a residual grouping labeled other. Performance varied with matrix complexity, and the team was candid about where the method excels and where it struggles. In the relatively simple matrices of plastics and metals, recoveries of surrogate standards, isotopically labeled PFAS compounds added to track extraction efficiency, met quality control criteria of 50 to 150 percent. Recoveries of native PFAS spikes in polymer containers and aluminum foil ranged from 82 to 140 percent, with the exceptions of 3:3 FTCA, a fluorotelomer carboxylic acid, and 8:2 diPAP, a polyfluoroalkyl phosphate ester. These figures indicate that for straightforward products, the SPE-free workflow delivers quantitative results comparable to conventional approaches while saving substantial time and cost.

The picture darkens for more complex matrices. Paper, fabric, cosmetic, and other matrices adversely affected the recoveries of fluorotelomer sulfonic acids and of surrogates derived from electrochemical fluorination, the legacy manufacturing process behind compounds such as PFOS and PFOA. The most challenging samples, including cosmetic pressed powder, food packaging, athletic tape, and a dress shirt, substantially impacted the recoveries of multiple spiked PFAS. The likely culprits are co-extracted matrix components that compete with PFAS during ionization in the mass spectrometer, a phenomenon known as ion suppression, or that bind the analytes during extraction and prevent them from reaching the detector. The team emphasized that further optimization is needed to improve the recovery of these challenging analytes and to minimize matrix interferences in complex products, positioning the co-solvation method as a complementary approach for selected consumer products rather than a universal replacement.

Extraction technique itself proved to be a decisive variable. The researchers compared several extraction methods, and among them Soxhlet extraction, the classic laboratory technique in which solvent is repeatedly condensed and dripped through the sample for hours, yielded the highest PFAS concentrations. On the surface that sounds like a victory for thoroughness, but the team found that Soxhlet extraction was prone to matrix interference and to potential PFAS artifacts, meaning the harsh, prolonged conditions may generate fluorotelomer compounds from precursor molecules rather than simply releasing those already present. Prior analytical literature has documented how hydrolysis of fluorotelomer alcohol precursors can account for some of the unknown PFAS observed in samples, and the new findings reinforce that caution. Because artifacts can inflate apparent PFAS concentrations, the authors concluded that Soxhlet extraction has limited suitability for PFAS analysis, despite its raw extraction power.

In contrast, cryo-milling, the mechanical grinding of samples at cryogenic temperatures until they become a fine frozen powder, enhanced PFAS extraction when incorporated into the co-solvation protocol. The technical logic is elegant: freezing brittle products such as plastics, packaging, and textiles allows them to be pulverized without heat or chemical alteration, dramatically increasing the surface area exposed to the extraction solvent. More surface area means faster and more complete dissolution of PFAS trapped within the polymer or fiber structure. Cryo-milling thus solves one of the oldest problems in solid-sample analysis, the difficulty of extracting analytes locked inside intact materials, while avoiding the artifact formation that plagues aggressive thermal techniques.

The broader significance of this work lies in the exposure pathway it illuminates. PFAS reach humans not only through contaminated water but through direct contact with products, migration from packaging into food, and the shedding of fibers and particles into household dust. Previous studies have found PFAS in outdoor jackets, curtains, sofas, carpets, plant-based drinking straws, microwave paper packaging, and raw materials for paper-based food contact materials, and researchers have questioned how well product labels indicate the presence of PFAS in items used by children and adolescents. Regulatory agencies worldwide are moving to restrict PFAS in consumer goods, but enforcement depends on laboratories being able to measure these compounds quickly, affordably, and defensibly. A method that removes the SPE bottleneck could expand testing capacity at exactly the moment demand for it is surging.

The team, which also included Rachel Hale and Michael Deible of RJ Lee Group, designed the experiments so that Deible and Lipps created the study framework while Miller and Hale conducted the data acquisition and analysis, and Yang interpreted the data and wrote the manuscript. Their self-funded study offers laboratories a practical new tool: a co-solvation workflow with large-volume injection and acetic acid co-injection that delivers strong performance for plastics and metals, honest warnings about powders, packaging, and textiles, and a clear roadmap for optimization. As PFAS scrutiny intensifies across cosmetics, clothing, and food packaging, methods like this one, transparent about both their strengths and their matrix limitations, will be essential for turning forever chemicals from an invisible exposure into a measurable, manageable risk.

Subject of Research: Analytical Chemistry and Environmental Monitoring

Article Title: New test method for determination of extractable per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in consumer products by solvent extraction followed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS)

Article References: Yang, S.-H., Miller, L., Hale, R., Lipps, W., & Deible, M. (2026). New test method for determination of extractable per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in consumer products by solvent extraction followed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 198(11), Article 1208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-026-16031-4

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s10661-026-16031-4

Keywords: PFAS, forever chemicals, LC-MS/MS, co-solvation extraction, solid-phase extraction, consumer products, cryo-milling, Soxhlet extraction, mass spectrometry, food packaging, cosmetics, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment

Saclipins A and B are oxylipins, a broad family of oxidized fatty acid derivatives that includes many signaling molecules in plants and algae. What makes the saclipins remarkable is their function: they absorb ultraviolet light, and they do so with notable photo- and thermochemical stability. They are produced by Aphanothece sacrum, a cyanobacterium known in Japan as Suizenji-nori, which is traditionally harvested and eaten. Beyond their UV-shielding behavior, saclipins have been reported to show antioxidative and antiglycative activities, making them attractive candidates for cosmetics and functional materials. Yet a stubborn obstacle has kept them out of widespread use: the compounds accumulate only in small amounts in the organism, and the biosynthetic route that creates them was essentially unknown.

That obstacle is precisely what the research team, led by Professor Hakuto Kageyama together with graduate student Yoshie Uchida of the Graduate School of Environmental and Human Sciences at Meijo University, set out to dismantle. Their strategy began with a genome search. Scanning the A. sacrum genome for genes encoding lipoxygenases, a class of enzymes known to oxygenate polyunsaturated fatty acids, the researchers identified two candidates, which they named AsLOX1 and AsLOX2. Lipoxygenases are attractive targets in such searches because they perform regioselective and stereoselective oxygen insertions, the kind of chemistry that natural product pathways often exploit to build structurally complex oxylipins from simple fatty acid precursors.

To test what the two candidate enzymes could actually do, the team produced recombinant versions of both proteins and challenged them with three fatty acid substrates: α-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid. The results were decisive. AsLOX2 showed clear activity toward all three substrates, with the strongest activity directed at α-linolenic acid, while AsLOX1 showed no detectable activity under the conditions tested. The contrast between the two enzymes suggested that AsLOX2, not AsLOX1, was the functional player in saclipin biosynthesis, a hypothesis that subsequent experiments would confirm in striking detail.

The key finding came when the researchers examined exactly how AsLOX2 acts on α-linolenic acid. Rather than introducing oxygen at a single position, as many lipoxygenases do, AsLOX2 oxygenates the fatty acid at two distinct positions, producing a doubly oxygenated hydroperoxide known as 9,16-diHPOTE. This molecule is a key intermediate linked to saclipin formation. The team confirmed its identity using chromatographic and mass spectrometric analyses, the standard analytical toolkit for pinning down the structures of unstable oxylipin intermediates. Under optimized conditions, the enzyme converted more than 80 percent of the starting fatty acid into 9,16-diHPOTE within just a few minutes, a level of efficiency that underscores how powerfully catalytic this gateway step is.

“Identifying AsLOX2 as the gateway enzyme gives us an important biochemical entry point for understanding how this unusual UV-absorbing compound is produced,” says Prof. Kageyama. The phrase gateway enzyme is apt: in natural product biosynthesis, the first committed step often determines which branch of metabolism a precursor enters, and knowing which enzyme performs it provides both a mechanistic anchor and a practical handle for reconstruction. With AsLOX2 in hand, the researchers could now attempt something that had not been done before: building saclipins from a fatty acid starting material using a defined enzymatic step followed by chemical transformations.

That is exactly what they did. Starting from the AsLOX2-derived 9,16-diHPOTE, the team first reduced the hydroperoxide to form 9,16-diHOTE, a chemically more stable dihydroxy intermediate. They then applied a chemical oxidation step to generate compounds corresponding to saclipins A and B, confirming the identities of the products by comparison with authentic reference compounds. The reaction produced saclipin A in greater amounts than saclipin B, with the two products appearing at an approximate ratio of 9:1. Although the overall yield was modest, the demonstration was conceptually important: an enzymatic oxygenation step and downstream chemical conversion could be chained together to deliver the finished UV-absorbing molecules.

“The combination of an enzymatic gateway step and chemical conversion demonstrates a practical route toward saclipin production, while also highlighting the downstream reactions that remain to be discovered in the natural pathway,” says Prof. Kageyama. This point captures the dual significance of the work. On one level, it provides a workable semi-synthetic route: a fatty acid can be fed through a highly efficient enzyme and then converted chemically into saclipins, bypassing the need to extract scarce material from cyanobacterial biomass. On another level, it maps the frontier of the unknown. The natural pathway presumably uses enzymes to carry out the reduction and oxidation steps that the researchers performed chemically, and identifying those downstream enzymes remains an open challenge.

The broader implications extend in several directions. First, the study establishes that a single lipoxygenase performs a dual oxygenation that links α-linolenic acid, an abundant and inexpensive plant-derived fatty acid, to the saclipin pathway. That makes alternative production systems, whether purely enzymatic, microbial, or hybrid approaches, a realistic prospect. Engineered microbes supplied with ALA and equipped with AsLOX2 could in principle serve as production platforms, reducing reliance on extraction from A. sacrum and relieving pressure on wild populations of the edible cyanobacterium. Second, the work illuminates how lipid metabolism contributes to stress adaptation. Saclipin accumulation in A. sacrum is strongly stimulated by desiccation stress, and understanding the pathway may clarify how this organism converts membrane fatty acids into protective metabolites when water becomes scarce, a strategy of considerable interest for understanding cyanobacterial resilience.

The authors are careful to note that practical applications remain some distance away. Further work is needed to identify the natural downstream enzymes, and the productivity, safety, stability, and other properties of any production process must be assessed before saclipins can be considered for cosmetic or functional material use. Even so, the trajectory is clear. A molecule once available only in trace quantities from a specialized organism now has a defined biosynthetic entry point, a demonstrated semi-synthetic route, and a growing research program aimed at completing the pathway. For a field searching for natural, stable, UV-absorbing ingredients, the humble Suizenji-nori cyanobacterium and its gateway enzyme may prove to be an unexpectedly rich source of answers.

Subject of Research: Biosynthesis of UV-absorbing saclipin oxylipins in the cyanobacterium Aphanothece sacrum via the lipoxygenase AsLOX2

Article Title: Enzyme discovery opens a new route to natural UV-absorbing saclipins

Article References: Enzyme discovery opens a new route to natural UV-absorbing saclipins. (n.d.). Original publication

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: Not provided

Keywords: saclipins, lipoxygenase, AsLOX2, Aphanothece sacrum, cyanobacteria, alpha-linolenic acid, oxylipins, UV-absorbing compounds, biosynthesis, cosmetics, desiccation stress, natural products

PFAS are not a single chemical but a sprawling family of more than 10,000 synthetic fluorinated compounds, defined under the framework adopted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the United Nations Environment Programme by the presence of carbon-fluorine bonds. That bond, one of the strongest in organic chemistry, makes these substances extraordinarily resistant to degradation, earning them the nickname forever chemicals. Their persistence, tendency to bioaccumulate and documented associations with adverse health effects have placed them at the centre of public health concern worldwide. In cosmetics, PFAS have historically served useful functions: they improve spreadability, create water-resistant films, and help pigments adhere to skin for hours. It is precisely these performance benefits that made them attractive formulators’ tools, and precisely these properties that now make them regulatory targets.

The new analysis, conducted by Margaux Vincent-Graindorge and Lionel Ripoll, took a deliberately simple approach: keyword screening of the International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients, or INCI, lists that regulations require on every product label. The dataset covered 1,233 products spanning three categories: 500 makeup items, 111 oral care products, and 622 other personal care products such as skin creams and cleansers. The results were immediately intriguing. Just over 19 percent of the products declared at least one fluorine-containing ingredient on their labels. But when the researchers applied the strict OECD and UNEP definition of a PFAS, requiring an actual carbon-fluorine bond, the number collapsed to a mere 0.9 percent of products. In other words, fewer than one in a hundred products declared an ingredient that legally qualifies as a PFAS.

The ingredient-level classification reveals why the gap exists, and it is not evidence of concealed chemicals. Almost all of the declared fluorine in these products belongs to compounds with no carbon-fluorine bond at all. The dominant contributor is synthetic fluorphlogopite, a synthetic mica prized in makeup for its shimmer and purity, which appeared in 134 products. The second major contributor is a category of dental fluoride salts, such as those used in toothpastes to prevent cavities, found in 88 products. These inorganic fluorides are chemically worlds apart from PFAS: they lack the persistent organofluorine backbone that defines the forever-chemical family, yet a casual reading of a label mentioning fluoride or fluorphlogopite could easily lead a consumer, or even a careless screener, to lump them together with PFAS.

Perhaps the most visually striking finding is how strongly fluorine declaration is structured by product type. In oral care products, 73 percent declared at least one fluorine-containing ingredient, an unsurprising figure given the near-universal use of cavity-preventing fluoride salts in toothpaste. In makeup, the figure was 28.2 percent, driven overwhelmingly by fluorphlogopite and related pearlescent agents. Across all other personal care products, the figure plummeted to just 1.9 percent. The authors report that this distribution is highly statistically significant, with a chi-squared statistic of 355.7 across two degrees of freedom and a p-value below 0.001. The pattern tells a coherent story: when fluorine appears on a cosmetic label, it almost always has an innocent, well-understood explanation rooted in the product’s function, not in the stealth use of forever chemicals.

So why have analytical studies repeatedly found fluorinated compounds in cosmetics at levels that seem to dwarf what labels declare? The answer, the researchers argue, lies in the difference between two families of measurement techniques. Targeted methods, typically using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry, identify and quantify specific PFAS compounds against reference standards. They are precise but blind to anything outside their target list, which is a serious limitation in a chemical family of 10,000 members. Total-fluorine methods, by contrast, such as combustion ion chromatography and the extractable organic fluorine approach, capture every fluorine atom in a sample regardless of compound identity. These methods have powered many of the alarming headlines, because they routinely report fluorine masses far exceeding what any declared PFAS ingredient could explain.

The critical insight from the new study is that total fluorine is not synonymous with intentionally added PFAS. When the label data and the analytical surveys are placed side by side, the deliberate use of PFAS as functional ingredients in finished cosmetic formulations appears to be uncommon. The organofluorine that analytical surveys detect, the authors contend, most likely enters products through routes that no ingredient list could ever capture: process water used in manufacturing, residues on shared production equipment, or fluorinated contamination present in treated raw materials before they ever reach the formulator. This distinction matters enormously for policy, because the regulatory frameworks now proliferating around the world are almost universally keyed to intentional addition, targeting PFAS that manufacturers deliberately put into their products through defined substance lists.

The regulatory landscape is indeed tightening rapidly. The European Union operates restrictions under the REACH regulation and the Persistent Organic Pollutants regulation, while the European Chemicals Agency has broader restrictions under consideration. France has enacted a dedicated law on products containing PFAS, adopted in February 2025. Canada has proposed measures targeting forever chemicals, including action on firefighting foams, and has published a state-of-PFAS report assessing the whole class. Yet if a meaningful share of the fluorine in cosmetics arrives as unintended contamination rather than deliberate formulation, these frameworks, however well intentioned, may miss the very exposure pathways they aim to control. A regulation that bans intentionally added PFAS cannot, by construction, address fluorine that rides in on process water or a treated raw material.

The study also carries a cautionary tale for how science communicates risk. Several widely shared claims about PFAS in cosmetics rest on total-fluorine measurements interpreted through the lens of intentional addition, a combination that can inflate perceived prevalence. A sunscreen study that demonstrated transdermal absorption of a radiolabelled PFAS, and biomonitoring work linking personal care product use to serum PFAS levels, underscore that dermal exposure is a genuine pathway worth studying. But the new INCI analysis suggests that the magnitude of that pathway from finished cosmetics may be smaller than feared, and that the field needs better tools to distinguish listed ingredients from residual contamination. The authors point toward suspect screening workflows using high-resolution mass spectrometry, and toward fluorine mass-balance approaches that reconcile total fluorine with identified compounds, as the way forward.

For consumers, the practical takeaway is one of measured reassurance rather than complacency. The vast majority of fluorine appearing on cosmetic labels is synthetic mica in a shimmering eyeshadow or a cavity-fighting fluoride salt in toothpaste, neither of which is a PFAS in the regulatory or toxicological sense. For policymakers, the message is more demanding: if forever chemicals are sneaking into cosmetics through water, equipment and raw materials, then protecting the public will require controlling contamination at the supply-chain level, not merely policing ingredient lists. And for the scientific community, the study is a reminder that a keyword on a label and a fluorine atom in a chromatogram are two very different kinds of evidence, and that conflating them risks distorting both public understanding and the regulations meant to keep people safe. The full INCI dataset and the Python screening script behind the analysis are available from the corresponding authors, offering other researchers a transparent starting point for replicating and extending the work.

Subject of Research: Declared versus actual presence of PFAS in cosmetic products based on INCI ingredient list analysis

Article Title: Declared versus actual presence of PFAS in cosmetic products: an INCI list analysis and critical appraisal of current regulatory frameworks

Article References: Vincent-Graindorge, M., & Ripoll, L. (2026). Declared versus actual presence of PFAS in cosmetic products: an INCI list analysis and critical appraisal of current regulatory frameworks. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 33(30), 15883-15896. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-026-38214-9

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s11356-026-38214-9

Keywords: PFAS, cosmetics, INCI, fluorine, fluorphlogopite, regulation, dermal exposure, total fluorine, extractable organic fluorine, OECD, forever chemicals, personal care products

The team, led by Yuan-Qing Luo of Henan University of Technology and colleagues, started from a well-known chemical paradox. Cold-pressed sesame oil retains abundant lignans, principally sesamin and sesamolin, which lend the oil oxidative stability on the shelf but carry no free phenolic hydroxyl groups and therefore little intrinsic antioxidant or anti-tyrosinase power. Roasting generates the potent antioxidant sesamol by degrading sesamolin, but it also produces an intense aroma that is unwelcome in cosmetic formulations, and industrial refining strips out sesamol and tocopherols altogether. The researchers’ solution was a solid acid-catalyzed in situ conversion, using an oxalic acid-modified mesoporous molecular sieve catalyst added directly to cold-pressed oil at 80 degrees Celsius, selectively converting the endogenous lignans into more active derivatives without creating off-flavors.

By tuning the reaction time, the team produced two bespoke oils. A short 20-minute catalytic treatment yielded a sesamol-rich oil containing 132.25 milligrams of sesamol per 100 grams, while a longer 180-minute treatment produced an asarinin-rich oil with 356.77 milligrams of asarinin per 100 grams. Untreated cold-pressed oil contained neither compound, only its native sesamin and sesamolin. Crucially, gas chromatographic analysis showed that the fatty acid backbone of the oil was essentially untouched: oleic acid and linoleic acid remained at roughly 40 and 44 percent of total fatty acids in all three samples, preserving the emollient and barrier-repair properties that make the oil matrix valuable in cosmetics. Some loss of gamma-tocopherol and phytosterols occurred, apparently through non-selective adsorption onto the mesoporous catalyst, but this was similar in both treated oils.

The first functional test targeted tyrosinase, the copper-containing enzyme that catalyzes the rate-limiting steps of melanin synthesis and stands as the principal drug target for skin-lightening agents. At 1000 micrograms per milliliter, the sesamol-rich oil inhibited tyrosinase by 91.0 percent, statistically indistinguishable from the pharmaceutical benchmark kojic acid at one-tenth the concentration. The untreated oil managed only 2.1 percent inhibition, and the asarinin-rich oil an intermediate 49.3 percent. The pattern pointed squarely at sesamol as the active principle, consistent with earlier work showing sesamol is a potent monophenolase inhibitor with an IC50 of 3.2 micromolar, far exceeding kojic acid’s 59.72 micromolar, while sesamin and sesamolin lack inhibitory activity against the enzyme.

Molecular docking offered a structural explanation. Using a predicted structure of human tyrosinase, the researchers found that sesamol binds in the hydrophobic catalytic cavity with a favorable energy of minus 5.9 kilocalories per mole, close to arbutin’s minus 6.2. More tellingly, sesamol’s phenolic hydroxyl formed a hydrogen bond with Ser375, and its aromatic ring engaged in pi-stacking with His367, while making additional contacts with His180, His202, and His363. Those histidines are not incidental: they coordinate the binuclear copper center that drives tyrosinase’s catalytic chemistry. Sesamol thus appears to jam the enzyme by perturbing the microenvironment of its dicopper active site, occupying a different subsite from arbutin and raising the possibility of cooperative binding between the two inhibitors.

To test whether the effect survives in a living organism, the team turned to zebrafish embryos, a favorite screening platform for anti-melanogenesis compounds because their optical transparency allows pigment deposition to be watched in real time and their melanin synthesis pathways closely mirror those of humans. After establishing a maximum tolerated concentration of 1 milligram per milliliter, the researchers treated embryos for 45 hours. The sesamol-rich oil reduced cephalic melanin signal by 39.04 percent, approaching the 49.34 percent achieved by the positive control arbutin at five times the concentration. Biochemical assays confirmed the mechanism: melanin protein content fell to 60.35 percent of control levels and tyrosinase activity to 64.55 percent, closely matching the visible depigmentation.

The wound-repair experiments revealed a different division of labor. In a zebrafish skin injury model created by injecting acetic acid into larvae, all three oils accelerated healing, with efficacies of 56 percent for the untreated and sesamol-rich oils and 63 percent for the asarinin-rich oil at 100 milligrams per milliliter, approaching the 69 percent of epidermal growth factor. In a tail fin amputation model, however, the asarinin-rich oil pulled decisively ahead: at 25 milligrams per milliliter it achieved 39 percent tissue regeneration, roughly 44 percent better than the sesamol-rich oil and 56 percent better than untreated oil, nearing the performance of the positive control glycoin.

Anti-inflammatory activity told the opposite story. Using transgenic zebrafish whose neutrophils glow green, the researchers tracked the resolution of inflammation at amputated tail fins, where lingering neutrophils can release toxic granules that damage tissue. At low doses of 5 and 10 milligrams per milliliter, the sesamol-rich oil cleared 56 to 57 percent of wound-site neutrophils, dramatically outperforming both the untreated oil at 34 to 36 percent and the asarinin-rich oil at 37 to 38 percent, and beating the positive control dipotassium glycyrrhizinate’s 39 percent. At 25 milligrams per milliliter the asarinin-rich oil caught up, reaching 66 percent clearance. The authors attribute these divergent profiles to the lignan chemistry: sesamol is a known suppressor of reactive oxygen species and of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1 beta, IL-6, and TNF-alpha, while asarinin has been reported to inhibit superoxide-driven inflammatory activation more potently than sesamin.

The study’s broader significance lies in its demonstration that processing chemistry, not just the source plant, determines what a functional oil can do. Because the fatty acid matrix stayed constant while lignan composition was deliberately reshaped, the researchers could attribute specific bioactivities to specific lignan enrichments, effectively converting a traditional edible oil into a tunable platform for dermocosmetic design. The authors caution that the differential effects cannot yet be pinned on single compounds, since each oil retains a mixture of lignans and minor constituents, and the lipid matrix itself may influence lignan delivery and bioavailability. They also note that the sesamol-rich oil’s UV absorption at 287 nanometers was 14.4 percent higher than untreated oil, hinting at modest photoprotective value that requires verification in finished formulations. Still, with kojic acid associated with contact dermatitis and sensitization in some users, an edible-oil-derived alternative that approaches its tyrosinase-blocking potency while simultaneously offering wound-repair and anti-inflammatory benefits represents an appealing prospect for the next generation of natural skincare ingredients.

Subject of Research: Lignan-enriched sesame oils for skin lightening and wound repair

Article Title: Exploring the Potential of Sesamol/Asarinin-Enriched Sesame Oil in Skin Lightening and Wound Repair

Article References: Luo, Y.-Q., Li, Z.-Q., Wang, Q., Qin, J.-W., Yu, T., Liu, H.-M., & Yang, J.-C. (2026). Exploring the Potential of Sesamol/Asarinin-Enriched Sesame Oil in Skin Lightening and Wound Repair. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, Article 103348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2026.103348

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.jafr.2026.103348

Keywords: sesame oil, sesamol, asarinin, tyrosinase, melanin, skin lightening, wound healing, zebrafish, lignans, cosmetics, anti-inflammatory, molecular docking

Lichens are not single organisms but symbiotic unions between a fungus, the mycobiont, and a photosynthetic partner, an alga or cyanobacterium, called the photobiont. Taxonomically, lichens are classified by their fungal partner, most of which belong to the phylum Ascomycota, with the class Lecanoromycetes being the largest and most species-rich group. Molecular phylogenetics has revealed that the lichenized lifestyle evolved independently in multiple fungal lineages, meaning lichens are not a single natural group but a symbiotic strategy that arose repeatedly during fungal evolution. They come in three principal growth forms: crustose, which forms tightly attached crusts; foliose, with leaf-like lobes; and fruticose, which are shrubby or hair-like. Finer variations include squamulose, gelatinous, leprose and dimorphic forms, each reflecting adaptations to distinct ecological niches.

The chemical heart of the story lies in lichen secondary metabolism. The fungal partner synthesizes an extraordinary array of compounds through polyketide pathways, depositing them as crystals on the surface of the thallus. Major chemical classes include depsides, polyphenolic compounds linked by ester bonds that show antimicrobial, antioxidant and photoprotective activity; depsidones, their cyclic-ether cousins, which often display stronger antimicrobial, antiviral and cytotoxic effects; dibenzofurans such as the famous usnic acid; anthraquinones; pulvinic acid derivatives; xanthones; and various nitrogen-containing alkaloids. Many of these molecules are found nowhere else in nature, and their ecological roles, shielding the thallus from ultraviolet radiation, deterring herbivores and suppressing microbial competitors, remain only partially understood despite decades of experimental work.

Biosynthetically, lichen metabolites flow from three main routes. The acetyl-malonate pathway is the dominant one, beginning with acetyl-CoA and successive malonyl-CoA condensations that build polyketide chains, which are then cyclized, oxidized, reduced and esterified into compounds such as atranorin, evernic acid, salazinic acid, stictic acid, fumarprotocetraric acid and the dibenzofuran usnic acid. The shikimate pathway, funneling through chorismic acid, yields the pulvinic acid pigments like vulpinic acid and calycin that paint lichens in yellow and orange hues while providing UV screening and antimicrobial defense. The mevalonate pathway produces terpenoids and sterols, including zeorin in Cladonia species, hopane-type terpenes in Ramalina and Parmelia, and ergosterol derivatives in Usnea and Evernia. Genomic studies have revealed that lichen-forming fungi harbor large numbers of silent or cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters, organized into coordinated clusters alongside tailoring enzymes such as cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, O-methyltransferases and glycosyltransferases, hinting that the true metabolic repertoire is far larger than anything observed under natural conditions.

How these compounds actually work is increasingly clear. Usnic acid, atranorin and salazinic acid disrupt bacterial and fungal membrane permeability, causing cytoplasmic leakage, while also interfering with essential microbial enzymes and blocking biofilm formation, a major driver of chronic infection and antibiotic resistance. Phenolic metabolites such as evernic acid and usnic acid neutralize reactive oxygen species and boost endogenous defenses like glutathione and antioxidant enzymes. Anti-inflammatory effects arise from inhibition of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase and the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. On the cancer front, lichen metabolites trigger apoptosis by collapsing mitochondrial membrane potential, releasing cytochrome c and activating caspases, while also arresting the cell cycle and inhibiting angiogenesis. Depsidones such as stictic and norstictic acid have shown antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus in vitro by interfering with viral polymerases and genome replication.

The antimicrobial pedigree of lichens dates back to Burkholder’s pioneering 1944 report on antibiotic activity, followed by Vartia’s broader evidence. Screening studies since then suggest that more than half of all lichen species tested exhibit antimicrobial effects. Extracts of Ramalina farinacea and over 60 New Zealand species inhibited pathogens including Staphylococcus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas and Mycobacterium. Usnea ghattensis extracts suppressed multiple Bacillus species and Staphylococcus aureus, while Serbian lichens such as Cladonia furcata and Parmelia caperata were active against both bacteria and fungi. Notably, recent work indicates that usnic acid derivatives and atranorin analogs show enhanced activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria, including MRSA and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a finding with obvious relevance as antibiotic resistance escalates worldwide.

Antioxidant and antitumor activities round out the pharmacological portfolio. Antarctic lichens display exceptionally high radical-scavenging capacity, with usnic, sekikaic and salazinic acids from Ramalina species proving effective against oxidative stress, and Usnea ghattensis extracts showing hepatoprotective benefits in models of ethanol-induced liver damage. In oncology, usnic acid exhibits antiproliferative effects across multiple cancer cell lines; pannarin from Psoroma species induced apoptosis in prostate carcinoma and melanoma cells; protolichesterinic acid from Cetraria islandica blocked breast cancer cell lines; and gyrophoric acid from Umbilicaria showed strong cytotoxicity. Diffractaic acid, usnic acid and decarboxystenosporic acid from Usnea diffracta demonstrated antipyretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects, while atranorin, lecanoric acid and physodic acid added immunomodulatory properties to the list.

Beyond medicine, lichen chemistry reaches into the kitchen, the bathroom cabinet and the field. Lichens have been eaten for centuries: roughly 15 edible types are consumed in China, species like Parmotrema tinctorum and Everniastrum cirrhatum serve as food supplements in India and the Middle East, and Cladonia rangiferina and Cetraria islandica were traditionally baked into bread in parts of Europe. Parmelia perlata, known as black stone flower, is a prized spice in Indian biryanis and stews. In cosmetics, pulvinic acid derivatives and usnic acid act as natural UV filters with sun protection factors comparable to some commercial sunscreens, while phenolic extracts from Parmelia, Evernia and Cladonia neutralize the free radicals behind skin aging, and antimicrobial metabolites combat acne-causing Propionibacterium acnes. In agriculture, lichen compounds inhibit seed germination and root growth in weeds such as wild oat and barnyard grass, and larvicidal extracts from numerous species kill Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes, offering ecofriendly alternatives to synthetic pesticides. Industrially, lichens supply natural dyes, including the purple orcein derived from lecanoric acid in Parmotrema tinctorum, and the oak moss and tree moss extracts of Evernia prunastri and Pseudevernia furfuracea remain fixtures of the global perfume industry.

Significant obstacles stand between this promise and commercial reality. Lichens grow extraordinarily slowly, often taking years to decades to form mature thalli, and their complex dual-organism biology makes artificial cultivation technically demanding. Metabolite profiles fluctuate with species, environment and season, complicating standardization, and some compounds show cytotoxicity at higher concentrations, demanding rigorous toxicity profiling before clinical use. The review’s authors see a way forward through microbial fermentation of lichen-associated fungi, heterologous expression of biosynthetic genes, metabolic engineering and synthetic biology, combined with green extraction strategies, high-throughput screening and government-backed entrepreneurial initiatives. If those tools mature, the authors argue, lichens could indeed become the “green gold” of sustainable bio-entrepreneurship, provided that conservation keeps pace with exploitation in biodiversity hotspots like the Himalayas, the Western Ghats and Northeastern India, where roughly 2,500 of the world’s estimated 30,000 lichen species reside.

Subject of Research: Bioactive secondary metabolites produced by lichens and their pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, cosmetic and agricultural applications

Article Title: Lichen metabolites as potential natural products: a review

Article References: Sahoo, B., Pradhan, S., Dash, S., Upreti, D. K., & Rath, B. (2026). Lichen metabolites as potential natural products: a review. Discover Chemistry, 3(1), Article 524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44371-026-00932-x

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44371-026-00932-x

Keywords: lichens, secondary metabolites, usnic acid, natural products, antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant, polyketides, bioprospecting, symbiosis, cosmetics, biopesticides

The study was driven by a question at the heart of the emerging circular bioeconomy: can microorganisms with useful traits replace petrochemical and synthetic ingredients in everyday consumer products? Sunscreens are an obvious target. Many conventional UV filters, such as oxybenzone and octinoxate, have come under scrutiny for their environmental persistence and suspected effects on coral reefs and aquatic ecosystems. A biologically produced, biodegradable alternative that can be fermented from renewable feedstocks would fit neatly into the sustainability goals of the cosmetics industry. Mycosporine-like amino acids, the family of compounds to which mycosporine-glutaminol belongs, are already prized in biotechnology because they absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation efficiently while remaining photostable, meaning they do not degrade after repeated exposure to sunlight.

To explore this potential, the researchers isolated and characterized two P. laurentii strains, designated FBU001 from urban São Paulo and FBU003 from the Atacama Desert. Confirming the identity of a yeast strain is not a trivial matter, since misidentified organisms have derailed many biotechnological projects. The team used two complementary approaches: sequencing of ribosomal DNA, the standard molecular barcode for fungal identification, and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, a technique that fingerprints the protein profile of a microorganism within minutes. Both methods agreed on the taxonomic assignment, giving the researchers confidence that they were indeed working with P. laurentii and could compare their results against the growing body of literature on this basidiomycetous yeast.

Safety came next, and it is arguably the most consequential part of the work. Any organism proposed for large-scale cultivation must be shown to pose minimal risk to workers, consumers, and the environment. The team assessed biosafety through several independent lines of evidence. They measured the temperature range at which the yeasts can grow, since fungi capable of thriving at mammalian body temperature are inherently more concerning as potential pathogens. They also screened the strains for common fungal virulence factors, the molecular weaponry that pathogenic species use to invade host tissue and evade immune defenses. Finally, they turned to in vivo infection models, experiments in living organisms that provide a direct test of pathogenic potential rather than relying solely on genetic inference. The combined results indicated that both strains have low pathogenic potential, supporting their classification as suitable for industrial applications.

With safety established, the researchers probed the physiological hardiness of the two isolates, and here the contrast between their origins became vivid. Both strains proved resistant to UVC radiation, the shortest and most damaging band of ultraviolet light, which is largely filtered out by the ozone layer but is a formidable stressor for any microorganism that encounters it. The Atacama strain, however, carried additional extremophilic adaptations, most notably tolerance of osmotic stress, the cellular strain imposed by high salt or sugar concentrations that would normally dehydrate and kill less hardy microbes. This makes evolutionary sense: the Atacama Desert subjects its inhabitants to intense solar radiation, extreme aridity, and saline soils, so a yeast surviving there must be a biochemical generalist. The São Paulo strain, adapted to a milder but still sun-exposed urban niche, shared the UVC resistance but not the full suite of desert survival tools.

The centerpiece of the study was the detection and characterization of mycosporine-glutaminol itself. Both yeasts produced the compound, a small molecule that functions simultaneously as a UV filter and an antioxidant, neutralizing the reactive oxygen species that ultraviolet radiation generates inside cells. The researchers then went beyond simple chemical detection and interrogated the genomes and transcriptomes of the two strains. They found that the genes responsible for synthesizing mycosporine-glutaminol are not scattered randomly across the genome but are organized into a cluster, which the team designated the MYC biosynthetic gene cluster. Gene clustering is a hallmark of microbial secondary metabolism and makes both the evolution and the engineering of such pathways more tractable, because the entire production line sits in one contiguous stretch of DNA.

Crucially, transcriptional analyses showed that the MYC cluster is activated by ultraviolet exposure. When the yeasts were irradiated, the genes in the cluster switched on, ramping up production of the protective molecule in response to the threat. This inducible behavior confirms that mycosporine-glutaminol is not an incidental metabolic byproduct but a deliberate, regulated defense strategy. It also suggests a practical advantage for manufacturing: because production is triggered by a simple physical stimulus, UV light, fermentation processes could potentially be tuned to maximize yields without adding expensive chemical inducers. The fact that both the urban and desert strains carry and express the same cluster indicates that this photoprotective capacity is a conserved trait of the species rather than a local adaptation, which broadens the pool of candidate strains available for industrial screening.

The implications extend beyond a single compound. Mycosporine-like amino acids have been investigated for applications ranging from anti-aging skincare, where their antioxidant activity may protect against photoaging, to pharmaceutical formulations that require photostable excipients. A yeast platform that naturally produces one member of this family, and whose biosynthetic genes are mapped and inducible, offers a starting point for metabolic engineering: the MYC cluster could in principle be optimized, transferred to faster-growing production hosts, or modified to generate structural analogs with tailored absorption spectra. The low pathogenicity of the two strains also simplifies the regulatory pathway, since biosafety dossiers for industrial microorganisms demand exactly the kind of evidence this study assembled, from growth-temperature limits to virulence-factor screening to in vivo testing.

The work also carries a broader message about where useful biodiversity hides. A yeast thriving on tree surfaces or soil in a South American megacity and a relative surviving in the hyperarid Atacama turned out to share a sophisticated molecular sunscreen, discovered only because researchers chose to compare strains from contrasting ecological niches. As the cosmetics and chemical industries search for renewable, biodegradable ingredients, extremophilic and urban microorganisms alike are emerging as an underexplored reservoir of functional molecules. For now, the Brazilian team’s two P. laurentii strains stand as robust candidates for sustainable biotechnology, bridging the gap between microbial ecology on two continents and the sunscreen shelf, and offering a glimpse of a future in which the UV protection people wear is grown rather than synthesized.

Subject of Research: Photoprotective compound production by Papiliotrema laurentii yeasts from urban and desert environments

Article Title: Papiliotrema laurentii from two ecological niches: a possible source of next-generation photoprotective compounds

Article References: Santos, R. S., Martins-Silva, G., Barbosa, R. S., da Silva Costa de Oliveira, C. M., Vilanova, P. F., Pereira, P. T., Gianoni, I. M., dos Santos Queiroz, A. C., Padilla, A. A. A., Souza Ramos de Carvalho, A. C., Kreusch, M., Yamaguchi, L. F., Monteiro-Vitorello, C. B., Vallim, M. A., de Medeiros, L. S., & Pascon, R. C. (2026). Papiliotrema laurentii from two ecological niches: a possible source of next-generation photoprotective compounds. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-026-14000-y

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s00253-026-14000-y

Keywords: Papiliotrema laurentii, mycosporine-glutaminol, ultraviolet radiation, sunscreen, Atacama Desert, yeast biotechnology, biosafety, biosynthetic gene cluster, circular bioeconomy, extremophiles, cosmetics, antioxidant

The phytochemistry alone is striking. The epicarp contains roughly 160 aromatic compounds, while the endocarp harbors about 105 distinct chemical constituents, including at least 70 identified xanthones. The pericarp’s antioxidant activity has been reported to be up to 20 times greater than that of the edible pulp. Among the star molecules are alpha-mangostin, gamma-mangostin, garcinone E and gartanin, prenylated xanthones whose biological effects are tightly linked to their structure. Studies of gamma- and alpha-mangostin analogues show that the C-6 and C-3 hydroxyl groups, together with the C-2 prenyl side chain of 1,3,6,7-tetraoxygenated xanthones, are critical for potent antibacterial activity, with gamma-mangostin inhibiting MRSA at a concentration of just 3.13 micrograms per milliliter.

On the therapeutic front, the review documents an unusually broad portfolio of activities. Mangosteen pericarp patches achieved wound-healing rates of up to 83 percent over 21 days in burn injuries, while a bacterial cellulose dressing loaded with 10 percent pericarp extract reduced wound area to just 3 percent by day 15 in a Wistar rat model. In dentistry, mouthwash containing pericarp extract significantly reduced gingival inflammation in a randomized controlled trial, and toothpaste formulations showed antifungal activity against Candida albicans. Liposomes loaded with pericarp extract displayed potent antibacterial effects against Staphylococcus species in a murine model of superficial skin infection, reducing bacterial load and lesion size without cytotoxicity to keratinocyte cells.

The molecular mechanisms are increasingly well mapped. Alpha-mangostin exhibits the lowest binding energy with COX-2 and NF-kappaB proteins in computational models, and in vitro it suppresses production of prostaglandin E2, nitric oxide and iNOS, while reducing the inflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha and IL-6 at concentrations of 8 and 14 micrograms per milliliter. In vivo, it markedly reduced leukocyte and neutrophil migration. The same compound shows anti-diabetic potential by modulating PPAR-gamma, DPP-4 and aldose reductase, with binding affinities comparable to clinically available drugs, and anticancer effects mediated through mitochondrial apoptosis, upregulation of the pro-apoptotic protein BAX and activation of caspases-3 and -9. Cholinesterase inhibition adds a neurodegenerative dimension: garcinone C emerged as the most potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor with an IC50 of 1.24 micromolar, while gamma-mangostin most effectively inhibited butyrylcholinesterase.

The cosmetics industry has taken notice. A natural shampoo formulated with standardized pericarp extract showed effective cleansing, antimicrobial activity against the dandruff-associated fungus Malassezia furfur and antioxidant potential. An anti-acne facial serum built on mangosteen extract delivered strong antioxidant activity with an IC50 of 0.19 ppm and inhibited acne-causing bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus and Propionibacterium acnes. Alpha-mangostin is increasingly valued for anti-ageing and skin-hydration properties, and herbal face creams containing the extract exhibited both antioxidant and tyrosinase-inhibition activity. Even lip products are in on the act: hedonic testing suggests pericarp extract is a safe, consumer-accepted natural colorant.

Perhaps the most surprising application is in renewable energy. Anthocyanins such as cyanidin-3-sophoroside and cyanidin-3-glucoside, along with alpha-mangostin, can act as photosensitizers in dye-sensitized solar cells. A binary dye system combining anthocyanins and alpha-mangostin reached 1.32 percent efficiency, while alpha-mangostin sensitization achieved up to 1.78 percent in acidified acetone. Adding chenodeoxycholic acid as a co-adsorbent lifted efficiency from 0.36 to 0.56 percent, and co-pigmentation with benzoic acid raised anthocyanin-based cell efficiency from 0.2273 to 0.3709 percent. Most impressively, a cell using carbonized mangosteen peel as a natural counter electrode with an organic disulfide/thiolate electrolyte achieved 2.63 percent conversion efficiency, rivaling platinum-based designs.

Mangosteen is also becoming a feedstock for nanomaterials. Carbon dots, quasi-spherical fluorescent particles under 10 nanometers, have been synthesized from mangosteen pulp and pericarp using simple, reagent-free calcination or green hydrothermal methods. These dots detect ferric ions down to 52 nanomolar, label human colon cancer cells for bioimaging, catalyze the reduction of methylene blue, and enhance both the photostability and tensile strength of PVC films for UV-exposed packaging. Activated carbon derived from the pericarp delivered a specific capacitance of 274.5 farads per gram with 94.5 percent retention after 10,000 charge-discharge cycles, pointing toward sustainable supercapacitors. Meanwhile, pericarp extracts serve as natural reducing and capping agents for green synthesis of gold, silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles with antimicrobial and anticancer properties.

Environmental and agricultural uses round out the picture. Pericarp fibers removed 88.23 percent of crystal violet dye from alkaline wastewater, a chitosan composite with oxalic-acid-activated pericarp adsorbed 398.7 milligrams of the dye per gram, and MgO-TiO2-modified peel beads removed cadmium ions and methylene blue with over 87 percent efficiency across three reuse cycles. Green-synthesized copper nanoparticles removed roughly 92 percent of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin from water within a pH range of 6 to 7. In agriculture, zinc oxide nanoparticles made from pericarp extract inhibited the rice blight pathogen Xanthomonas oryzae while boosting chlorophyll content in rice plants, and a pericarp nano-emulsion improved growth, immunity and disease resistance in Nile tilapia farming.

The food industry, finally, is exploiting the whole fruit: pericarp powder enriches bread and cakes, pulp extract fills pastries, freeze-dried powder goes into cookie dough, and rind juice colors jams while raising anthocyanin and antioxidant levels. Yet the review’s authors are candid about the hurdles. Clinical studies remain scarce, most applications are confined to the laboratory, extraction and nanoparticle synthesis protocols lack standardization, and the bioavailability of key xanthones is limited, though nanomicelles have boosted alpha-mangostin solubility more than 10,000-fold. Reliable peel supply, preservation technologies and scalable green extraction methods will be essential. If those challenges are met, the thick purple husk of the queen of fruits could evolve from agricultural waste into one of the most versatile sustainable bioresources in modern chemistry.

Subject of Research: Multidisciplinary applications of bioactive compounds and nanomaterials derived from Garcinia mangostana pericarp

Article Title: Comprehensive review on applications of Garcinia mangostana

Article References: Bandara, Y. G. A. D. K., Piyasena, K. G. N. P., & Jayasinghe, L. (2026). Comprehensive review on applications of Garcinia mangostana. Discover Chemistry, 3(1), Article 545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44371-026-00981-2

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44371-026-00981-2

Keywords: Garcinia mangostana, mangosteen pericarp, xanthones, alpha-mangostin, dye-sensitized solar cells, carbon dots, green synthesis, nanoparticles, corrosion inhibition, wastewater treatment, cosmetics, wound healing

The appeal of plant-mediated synthesis lies in the chemistry hidden inside leaf tissue. Extracts of Rumex nepalensis are rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, and organic acids, and these phytochemicals perform two roles simultaneously: they reduce zinc ions to form the oxide, and they cap the growing crystal surfaces, preventing the particles from clumping into larger aggregates. In effect, the plant acts as both a reducing agent and a stabilizing surfactant. This dual function eliminates the need for reagents such as sodium borohydride or hydrazine, and it also leaves a benign organic coating on the particle surface, which is often associated with improved biocompatibility in downstream applications.

Once the nanoparticles were formed, the team subjected them to a battery of analytical techniques to confirm what they had actually made. X-ray diffraction revealed sharp, well-defined peaks corresponding to the hexagonal wurtzite crystal structure, the thermodynamically stable form of zinc oxide under ordinary conditions. The absence of extra peaks indicated that no contaminating phases, such as zinc hydroxide or unreacted precursor salts, had survived the synthesis. Crystallite sizes estimated from diffraction data were consistent with the particle dimensions later observed by electron microscopy, suggesting that each particle was essentially a single crystallite rather than a polycrystalline aggregate.

Spectroscopic evidence filled in the chemical picture. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy detected absorption bands attributable to Zn–O stretching vibrations, along with features associated with the organic molecules from the plant extract adsorbed onto the particle surfaces, which is exactly what a capping layer should look like. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy showed strong signals for zinc and oxygen with minimal extraneous elements, indicating a high degree of elemental purity. Optical measurements using UV–Visible spectroscopy yielded a band gap energy of 3.26 electron volts, squarely in the expected range for zinc oxide and a confirmation that the material retains the semiconducting behaviour that makes ZnO useful in sensors, photocatalysts, and optoelectronic devices.

Electron microscopy provided the most striking visual confirmation. Scanning electron microscopy showed clusters of roughly spherical particles, while transmission electron microscopy resolved individual nanoparticles and allowed direct measurement of their diameters. The narrow size distribution, approximately 11 to 13 nanometres, is notable for a room-temperature biological route, where size control is often the hardest parameter to tune. Particles in this size range have an enormous surface-to-volume ratio, which matters because the antibacterial and antioxidant effects of zinc oxide depend heavily on surface area and on how much zinc can interact with biological membranes and generate reactive oxygen species at the particle surface.

That surface activity translated into real biological performance. The nanoparticles showed significant antibacterial activity against human pathogenic bacteria, positioning them as candidate antimicrobial agents at a moment when antibiotic resistance is spreading and demand for non-traditional antimicrobials is intense. Zinc oxide nanoparticles are thought to attack bacteria through several mechanisms at once: they generate reactive oxygen species that damage DNA, proteins, and lipids; they release zinc ions that disrupt metabolic enzymes; and their physical contact with cell membranes can compromise membrane integrity. Because these mechanisms differ fundamentally from those of conventional antibiotics, researchers view ZnO nanomaterials as a promising avenue against pathogens that have evolved resistance to standard drugs.

The team also documented strong antioxidant activity, meaning the particles could scavenge free radicals and mitigate oxidative stress in test systems. This property opens a different set of doors. In cosmetics, antioxidant nanomaterials are sought for skin-care formulations, and zinc oxide already has a long safety track record as a physical sunscreen agent. In food nanotechnology, antioxidant packaging additives could slow the oxidation that spoils fats and vitamins. The combination of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity in a single biogenic particle is what the authors point to when they describe the material as suitable for biomedical, cosmetic, and industrial applications.

The broader context is the rise of green nanotechnology as a sustainability strategy. Conventional nanoparticle synthesis typically requires high temperatures, strong reducing agents, and organic solvents, all of which carry environmental and energy costs. Plant-mediated routes operate in water, at ambient or mild conditions, and use renewable biological feedstock. The Rumex nepalensis used in this work is widespread and easy to propagate, making the process potentially cheap to scale. The authors, who include collaborators from institutions in India, Indonesia, and across Maharashtra, frame the result as part of a growing body of evidence that nature-inspired synthesis can match chemical synthesis on quality while dramatically reducing its environmental footprint.

Caveats remain before such particles reach pharmacies or factories. The study reports characterization and in vitro biological activity, so efficacy in clinical settings, toxicity profiles in animal models, and the long-term environmental fate of the nanoparticles all require further investigation. The paper’s data availability statement notes that no datasets were generated or analysed during the study beyond those presented in the article, and the work received no specific external funding. Still, the complete analytical record, from wurtzite diffraction patterns to a measured band gap of 3.26 electron volts, gives other laboratories a solid benchmark to reproduce and improve upon the synthesis.

What makes the result resonate beyond the laboratory is its simplicity. A leaf extract, a zinc salt, and standard benchtop equipment produced semiconductor nanoparticles with defined crystal structure, narrow size distribution, and measurable antimicrobial and antioxidant power. As drug-resistant infections accelerate and industries search for greener raw materials, the idea that a mountain weed long used in traditional medicine can serve as a nanofactory is the kind of cross-disciplinary surprise that keeps green chemistry moving forward. The researchers suggest their biogenic ZnO nanoparticles could serve as a foundation for sustainable nanomaterials in biomedicine, cosmetics, and industry, and on the evidence presented, the leaf’s chemistry is more than capable of carrying that ambition.

Subject of Research: Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Rumex nepalensis leaf extract with physicochemical characterization and antibacterial and antioxidant evaluation

Article Title: Plant-mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Rumex nepalensis extract and physicochemical characterization and biological applications

Article References: Pawar, A., Naktode, K., Mungole, A., Gaikwad, S., Parshuramkar, D. M., Pandhurnekar, C. P., Gulzar, J., Mammen, M. V., & Rasool, A. (2026). Plant-mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Rumex nepalensis extract and physicochemical characterization and biological applications. The Science of Nature, 113(5), Article 108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-026-02161-9

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s00114-026-02161-9

Keywords: zinc oxide nanoparticles, green synthesis, Rumex nepalensis, nanotechnology, antibacterial activity, antioxidant, wurtzite structure, phytochemicals, sustainable materials, biomedical applications, cosmetics, semiconductors