The study, published on 27 September 2026 as volume 48, article 608 of the journal, set out to fill a striking gap. While individual studies of contaminated sites in Iran have proliferated, no one had systematically compared contamination levels across different land uses, leaving environmental planners without a national baseline. To build one, the team screened the scientific literature and selected 195 papers published by March 2025 in which anthropogenic activities demonstrably affected the heavy metal content of soil or sediment. That corpus became the raw material for a land-use-by-land-use audit of pollution intensity, mobility and ecological risk.

The analytical framework was deliberately broad. The researchers focused on ten heavy metals and metalloids: arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, mercury, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc. These were tracked across nine distinct land-use categories, spanning industrial areas, mining areas, landfill sites, river sediments, roadside soils, agricultural lands, urban areas, coastal sediments and wetland sediments. For each combination of metal and land use, the team computed seven widely used soil pollution indices: the contamination factor, the enrichment factor, the pollution load index, the single-element ecological risk index, the potential ecological risk index, the risk assessment code and the geoaccumulation index. Each index probes a different facet of pollution, from simple enrichment relative to background geochemistry to the chemical forms in which metals are bound and how easily they can move into water, plants and food chains.

The headline finding is unambiguous: the impact of human activities was traceable in every land-use category. Yet the picture was not uniformly dire. For some metals, the signal was comparatively muted. Manganese and vanadium showed the smoothest conditions in mean contamination factor calculations, while cobalt, nickel, manganese and vanadium fared best in enrichment factor terms, and cobalt, chromium, manganese and vanadium were the least alarming under the geoaccumulation index. These elements, in other words, are less consistently elevated above natural background levels than the notorious quartet of lead, cadmium, arsenic and mercury that dominates much of the contamination record.

Two land uses stood out as relative bright spots. Wetland sediments were the only category in which the mean potential ecological risk index fell into the low ecological risk band, registering 136.89. The pollution load index, which integrates multiple metals into a single composite score, dropped below the critical threshold of 1 in both wetland and river sediments, with mean values of 0.837 and 0.856 respectively, indicating overall low pollution. That these aquatic sediment environments, which often act as sinks for contaminants washing off the land, remain in comparatively good condition offers a rare note of encouragement in an otherwise grim assessment.

The most technically consequential part of the analysis concerns mobility, measured through the risk assessment code, which classifies metals by the strength of their binding to sediment and soil phases. Metals locked into residual crystal lattices pose little immediate threat; metals held loosely on exchangeable sites or bound to carbonates and iron-manganese oxides can be released with a shift in pH, redox conditions or salinity. The review found that mean RAC values for cadmium and mercury each reached 46 percent, manganese 37 percent, lead 34 percent, and arsenic and vanadium 32 percent each. Values in this range are conventionally interpreted as high environmental risk, because a large fraction of the metal burden is chemically labile and available for uptake by organisms or transport through soil water.

When the researchers turned to the single-element ecological risk index, mercury and cadmium emerged as the country’s most dangerous soil contaminants. Mercury registered high ecological risk potential in agricultural areas, roadside soils, coastal sediments and river sediments, while cadmium achieved the same classification in roadside and industrial areas. This pairing is ecologically meaningful. Mercury is a potent neurotoxin that biomagnifies through aquatic food webs, and cadmium accumulates in kidneys and bones and is readily taken up by crop plants, so their prevalence in agricultural and roadside settings translates directly into exposure pathways for people and wildlife alike.

Across all nine land-use categories compared side by side, industrial areas emerged with the worst pollution status, a conclusion that will surprise no one who has studied the legacy of smelting, petrochemical processing and manufacturing, but which the review now documents at national scale. More striking still is the magnitude of some measurements. The authors report that certain published concentrations ran up to roughly two orders of magnitude higher than the corresponding ranges reported on a global scale, meaning some Iranian sites carry metal burdens a hundred times above international comparison values. Such extremes reflect a combination of rapid industrialization, aging infrastructure, and, in some regions, naturally metal-rich geology amplified by mining and ore processing.

Why does a national synthesis like this matter beyond Iran’s borders? The authors argue that their output can help environmental planners establish strategies for the optimal management of heavy metal pollution across different land uses, and that it paves the way for future research to build a more precise understanding of pollution levels in developing countries, specifically in the Middle East. The methodological lesson is equally transferable: contamination is not a property of a metal alone but of the interaction between a metal and the landscape it lands in. A roadside soil contaminated by brake wear and leaded-fuel legacy behaves differently from a paddy field dosed with cadmium-bearing phosphate fertilizer or a river delta receiving mine effluent, and risk indices must be interpreted within that land-use context.

There are also caveats worth bearing in mind. The seven indices employed here rest on comparisons with background or reference values, which vary between studies, and the risk assessment code, while informative about chemical mobility, does not by itself quantify doses to humans or ecosystems. The authors likewise note that no new datasets were generated for the study; its power lies entirely in the synthesis of prior field measurements. Even so, by assembling 195 studies into a single comparative framework, the review transforms a scattered literature into an actionable map of where toxic metals concentrate, which metals are most mobile, and which land uses demand the most urgent intervention. As soil pollution increasingly threatens agriculture and human health worldwide, the Iranian experience documented here offers both a warning and a template for other rapidly developing regions confronting the chemical debts of their own growth.

Subject of Research: Ecological risk assessment of heavy metal contamination in Iranian soils across different land uses

Article Title: Overview of ecological risk assessment of heavy metals with the approach of land uses affecting soil pollution

Article References: Khalili, M., Nohegar, A., & Nasrabadi, T. (2026). Overview of ecological risk assessment of heavy metals with the approach of land uses affecting soil pollution. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 48(15), Article 608. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-026-03482-4

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s10653-026-03482-4

Keywords: heavy metals, soil pollution, ecological risk assessment, land use, Iran, systematic review, mercury, cadmium, contamination factor, pollution load index, risk assessment code, environmental geochemistry

The research, published in the journal Advances in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, was carried out by Priyanka Gupta of Kalinga University, Gaurav Tamrakar of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Kalinga University, and Shashank Sharma of Sharda University, Greater Noida. Between May and June 2023, the team collected fifteen groundwater samples from bore wells scattered across the Kanker district, with well depths ranging from just 1.7 metres to more than 20 metres. The sampling network was designed to capture the full spatial and geological diversity of the study area, which spans latitudes of roughly 20.24 to 20.6 degrees north and longitudes of 80.48 to 81.48 degrees east, an expanse underlain by marble, schist, limestone, quartzite, granite, dolomite and, in the south, significant iron ore reserves.

The analytical workflow followed internationally recognized protocols. Each sample was immediately preserved with one millilitre of filtered concentrated nitric acid and held at a stable temperature in darkness until processing, in line with United States Environmental Protection Agency procedure 3015 from 1994. Fifty millilitre aliquots were digested with a mixture of 65 percent nitric acid and 35 percent hydrochloric acid, then passed through 0.45 micrometre nylon filters. Quantification of nine metals and metalloids, namely arsenic, cadmium, copper, cobalt-associated iron, nickel, zinc, chromium, lead and manganese, was performed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, a technique prized for its sensitivity and reproducibility in trace metal analysis. Every sample was run in three consecutive duplicates, and blanks and certified reference materials were processed alongside to verify accuracy and consistency throughout the measurement campaign.

What distinguishes this investigation is not merely the measurement of metal concentrations but the battery of five complementary pollution indices the authors deployed to translate raw numbers into environmental meaning. The team computed the geo-accumulation index, or Igeo, which compares measured concentrations against geological background values on a logarithmic scale; the contamination factor, which ratios each metal against its permissible drinking water limit as set by Indian Bureau of Standards specifications from 2012; the modified degree of contamination, which averages contamination factors across all measured pollutants; the pollution load index, or PLI, a Tomlinson-derived composite calculated as the nth root of the product of individual contamination factors; and finally the metal index, which sums the ratio of each measured concentration to its maximum acceptable concentration. Cross-comparing multiple indices against a common set of standards, the authors argue, provides a far more robust picture of contamination than any single metric alone.

The raw concentrations told the first part of the story. Mean values in the groundwater stood at 5.47 parts per million for iron, 1.41 for lead, 0.94 for chromium, 0.70 for nickel, 0.45 for zinc and 0.32 for manganese, with measured ranges spanning 4.2 to 6.9 milligrams per litre for iron, 0.5 to 3.6 for lead, 0.11 to 2.63 for chromium, 0.25 to 0.68 for zinc, 0.1 to 0.9 for manganese and 0.33 to 1.07 for nickel. Concentrations of arsenic, cadmium and copper fell below acceptable limits, and indeed below the detection threshold required for inclusion in the index calculations, a striking result given that arsenic contamination in the Kanker district had been documented as early as 2006 by Pandey and colleagues, who linked elevated manganese and arsenic to effects on local flora and fauna. During the summer sampling season, the descending order of mean concentration was iron, followed by lead, chromium, nickel, zinc and manganese.

The index calculations then transformed these numbers into a verdict. Every geo-accumulation index value came out strongly negative, with chromium ranging from minus 10.26 to minus 5.68, manganese from minus 13.64 to minus 10.47, iron from minus 14.04 to minus 13.32, lead from minus 5.91 to minus 3.06, zinc from minus 9.15 to minus 7.71 and nickel from minus 8.27 to minus 6.57. On the Igeo scale, where negative values signify geochemical enrichment well below background levels, these figures place the study area firmly in the uncontaminated category for all six metals evaluated. The contamination factors reinforced the picture: mean values declined in the order of lead, chromium, nickel, zinc, manganese and iron, yet every single mean sat below one, the threshold signalling minimal contamination, with individual values as low as 0.00009 for iron and peaking at just 0.18 for lead.

The modified degree of contamination ranged from 0.73 to 1.13 across the six sites where it was computed, indicating extremely low pollution overall, with only sampling site 13 showing a comparatively elevated modified degree and site 12 registering the lowest value of 0.73. The pollution load index averaged 0.91, ranging from 0.72 to 1.14, and only two locations, sites 2 and 7, crossed the critical threshold of one, hinting at modest localized enrichment that the authors attribute tentatively to rising human activity. At every other sampling point, PLI values below one meant that each evaluated metal remained under its baseline reference. Meanwhile, the metal index, ranging from 0.002 to 0.132 across all fifteen sites, placed every single sample squarely within the classification of unaffected water, defined as pure water within the 0.3 to 1.0 band or better. Taken together, the five indices converge on a single conclusion: the groundwater of Kanker district is neither severely nor even slightly degraded.

Why does this geological terrain, so rich in metal-bearing rocks and historically flagged for arsenic, yield such benign water? The authors present a layered explanation rooted in geology, hydrogeology, land use and climate. The district is dominated by stable Precambrian crystalline formations whose low metal solubility restricts the release of heavy metals into the aquifer, and regional weathering contributes only background-level concentrations rather than contamination spikes. The aquifer systems, largely unconfined to semi-confined, enjoy continuous recharge that dilutes dissolved constituents, while groundwater flow dynamics disperse and prevent the localized accumulation of contaminants. Land use amplifies these natural safeguards: forest and agriculture predominate, population density is low, and, crucially, the immediate vicinity hosts no major heavy industry or mining, so anthropogenic point sources are nearly absent. Farming inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides and soil amendments introduce only trace quantities of cadmium, lead and nickel, and domestic wastewater disposal, vehicular emissions and small commercial operations add marginal loading at most. Seasonal monsoon rainfall then flushes the aquifer system periodically, enhancing recharge and dilution and further suppressing any accumulation of dissolved metals.

The broader significance of the study extends beyond one district. Groundwater serves as the primary drinking and household water source across much of rural Central India, and the mineral-rich tribal belt of neighbouring Bastar has previously shown aluminium, arsenic, iron, manganese and nickel levels exceeding permissible limits, with arsenic posing excessive cancer and non-cancer risks according to work by Pervez and colleagues in 2021. Against that backdrop, the Kanker results offer a calibrated baseline and a methodological template. The authors emphasize that the indexical and statistical framework applied here, spanning Igeo, CF, mCdeg, PLI and MI, can be adopted by government agencies for environmental management, assessment and remediation planning, and they stress that periodic groundwater assessment remains essential to safeguard water purity for human consumption. In a region where every data point on water quality carries direct public health weight, this study delivers rare good news, delivered with the quantitative discipline that good news needs to be believed.

Beyond the headline findings, the study illustrates why multi-index approaches have become standard practice in freshwater contamination research worldwide. Each index answers a subtly different question: the contamination factor isolates individual metals, the modified degree of contamination smooths results across the full suite of pollutants, and the pollution load index responds sensitively to whether even one metal exceeds its reference threshold. Because these metrics were computed against a common set of Indian drinking water standards, their agreement carries genuine weight rather than being a statistical artifact.

The geochemical setting deserves particular attention. In Precambrian cratonic terrains, metals are typically locked in silicate and oxide minerals that weather slowly, so background dissolved concentrations remain low unless acidic conditions or sulfide oxidation mobilize them. The absence of such mobilizing processes in Kanker, combined with active monsoon-driven recharge, appears to keep dissolved metal loads suppressed even where ore deposits lie nearby.

The authors also caution that a single dry-season snapshot cannot capture temporal variability. Groundwater chemistry can shift with rainfall cycles, pumping patterns, and changing land use, and shallow bore wells under 2 metres deep are especially vulnerable to surface influences. They therefore frame their results as a baseline against which future monitoring campaigns should be judged, recommending periodic re-sampling and continued use of indexical tools by district authorities to detect any early drift toward contamination before it becomes a public health concern.

Subject of Research: Geo-environmental assessment of heavy metal contamination in groundwater in Kanker district, Central India, using pollution load index and geo-accumulation index

Article Title: Integrated geo-environmental evaluation of groundwater contamination using PLI and Igeo in Kanker, Central India

Article References: Gupta, P., Tamrakar, G., & Sharma, S. (2026). Integrated geo-environmental evaluation of groundwater contamination using PLI and Igeo in Kanker, Central India. Advances in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 2(1), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44405-026-00049-w

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44405-026-00049-w

Keywords: groundwater, heavy metals, pollution load index, geo-accumulation index, Kanker district, Chhattisgarh, Central India, water quality, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, contamination factor, metal index, Bastar Craton