The approach belongs to a family of technologies known as electrochemically mediated carbon capture, or EMCC. Rather than relying on heat to strip carbon dioxide from a solvent, as conventional amine scrubbing plants do, EMCC uses molecular sorbents whose affinity for CO2 can be switched on and off simply by adding or removing electrons. In the capturing state, the sorbent molecule is reduced at an electrode and becomes a strong Lewis base that eagerly binds carbon dioxide. When the bound gas needs to be released, a small reverse voltage oxidizes the adduct, liberating a concentrated stream of CO2 and regenerating the sorbent for another round. Because the process is driven by electricity, it pairs naturally with renewable power and avoids the enormous thermal energy penalty that has historically made post-combustion capture so expensive.

In most demonstrations of this concept, however, the electrochemical cell has contained a critical complication: an ion-exchange membrane that physically separates the sorbent compartment from the counter-electrode compartment. The membrane’s job is to shuttle charge-balancing ions between the two sides while keeping the redox-active sorbent molecules away from the counter-electrode, where they would otherwise react indiscriminately. But membranes bring a long list of problems. They add resistance, which raises the voltage and therefore the energy cost of every cycle. They degrade in the organic solvents often used in these systems. They are expensive to manufacture in large areas, and their permselectivity is rarely perfect, allowing some sorbent to leak across and undermining efficiency over time. For a technology that aspires to gigatonne-scale deployment, the membrane has become a liability.

The Johns Hopkins team, led by corresponding author Yayuan Liu, set out to eliminate the membrane entirely by substituting a solid-state counter-electrode that can host the charge-balancing ions within its own crystal lattice. The idea sounds simple, but it collides with a fundamental obstacle that has deterred researchers for years: self-discharge. In a membraneless cell, the reduced sorbent molecules inevitably encounter the counter-electrode surface. If the counter-electrode is thermodynamically poised to accept their electrons, the sorbent will be re-oxidized there unintentionally, quietly undoing the capture chemistry and wasting the electrical energy that was invested in the first place. It is analogous to a battery that drains itself even when nothing is connected.

The pivotal insight of the new study is that this self-discharge is not governed by the thermodynamic driving force, as conventional wisdom assumed, but rather by kinetics, and specifically by the rate at which ions diffuse within the solid counter-electrode material. The team demonstrated that even when the thermodynamic potential difference between the sorbent and the counter-electrode would predict rapid parasitic reaction, a counter-electrode with sluggish solid-state ion transport can suppress the process to negligible levels. The practical consequence is profound: the design criterion for a membraneless capture cell shifts from hunting for counter-electrode materials with precisely matched redox potentials, a nearly impossible constraint, to selecting materials whose ionic diffusion is kinetically slow on the timescale of a capture cycle. That reframing opens a vastly larger palette of candidate materials.

Guided by this kinetic design rule, the researchers screened sodium intercalation compounds and identified sodium iron phosphate, NaFePO4, as an ideal partner for an azopyridine molecular sorbent dissolved in a DMSO electrolyte. Azopyridine is a nitrogen-rich organic molecule that reversibly binds CO2 in its reduced state, and sodium iron phosphate provides a lattice that accommodates sodium ions during charging but conducts them so sluggishly that self-discharge is effectively throttled. The system captures CO2 when the azopyridine is reduced at the working electrode while sodium ions insert into the phosphate counter-electrode, and releases the gas when the current is reversed and the sodium ions return to solution. The electrochemistry is elegant in its symmetry: the same ion traffic that stores charge in a sodium-ion battery underpins the capture and release of a greenhouse gas.

The experimental results are striking for their durability. The membraneless cell operated through 75 consecutive capture and release cycles spanning 350 hours, maintaining consistent CO2 capacity utilization and high Coulombic efficiency throughout. Equally important, the performance held up under conditions that matter in the real world rather than only in idealized laboratory settings. The system continued to function at high current densities, which determines how compact and productive a commercial module could be. It captured CO2 efficiently from dilute feed gases, the regime relevant to direct air capture, where the target gas is present at roughly 420 parts per million. And it tolerated aerobic environments, a notorious Achilles heel for redox-active capture chemistries, since oxygen competes for the electrons intended for the sorbent and can degrade it irreversibly.

To assess what these performance figures would mean commercially, the team built a techno-economic model comparing the membraneless architecture with its membrane-based counterpart. The analysis indicated a potential 28.9 percent reduction in the cost per tonne of captured CO2, driven by the elimination of membrane capital costs, reduced ohmic losses and the simplified engineering of a single-compartment cell. While the authors are careful to frame this as a projected figure rather than a demonstrated one, the magnitude of the savings is significant in a field where every dollar per tonne matters for adoption, particularly for direct air capture, where costs remain the central barrier to scale.

Beyond the specific materials pairing, the study establishes what the authors describe as a scalable and generalizable framework for next-generation electrochemical carbon capture. Because the key design principle is kinetic rather than thermodynamic, other sorbent chemistries, including quinones, alkoxides and redox-tunable Lewis bases explored by this and other groups, could in principle be matched with kinetically suppressive solid counter-electrodes without membranes. The conceptual bridge to battery science is also notable: the same intercalation compounds engineered for sodium-ion energy storage become enabling components of climate infrastructure, and the self-discharge problem they were designed to mitigate turns out to be the very lever that makes membraneless operation viable.

The work arrives at a moment when the urgency of carbon removal has never been clearer. Direct air capture and point-source capture both need processes that run on clean electricity, tolerate real-world gas mixtures and cost little enough to deploy by the thousands of tonnes. By eliminating the membrane and rewriting the design logic that had constrained the field, the Johns Hopkins team has taken a concrete step toward electrochemical capture systems that could eventually be manufactured as simply as batteries. Much work remains, from long-term degradation studies to fully continuous flow operation and pilot-scale demonstrations, but the 350 hours of stable membraneless cycling and the projected cost reduction suggest that the field’s most persistent architectural assumption was one it could finally afford to abandon.

Subject of Research: A membraneless electrochemically mediated carbon capture architecture using solid-state counter-electrodes to suppress self-discharge and reduce capture costs

Article Title: Electrochemically mediated carbon capture using a membraneless architecture

Article References: Liu, A., Mathur, A., Jayarapu, K. N., Li, Z., Li, T., McDaniel, G., & Liu, Y. (2026). Electrochemically mediated carbon capture using a membraneless architecture. Nature Chemical Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44286-026-00438-4

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1038/s44286-026-00438-4

Keywords: carbon capture, electrochemistry, membraneless architecture, sodium iron phosphate, azopyridine sorbent, self-discharge, direct air capture, CO2 removal, redox-active sorbents, techno-economic analysis, chemical engineering, climate technology

The underlying physics is elegant and unforgiving. Global warming, as the authors note, arises from the net accumulation of solar energy within the Earth–atmosphere system: the planet absorbs more shortwave radiation from the Sun than it manages to shed as longwave radiation to space. Every object at terrestrial temperatures glows in the infrared, and a surface at around 20 to 30 degrees Celsius radiates most intensely at wavelengths near 10 micrometres — squarely inside a rare 8-to-13-micrometre band in which the atmosphere is largely transparent. Photons emitted in this window slip between the absorption bands of water vapour and carbon dioxide and escape to space, where the effective radiative sink sits at tens of degrees below zero. A paint engineered to reflect the overwhelming majority of incident sunlight across the ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared while simultaneously emitting strongly in that window can therefore shed more energy than it absorbs, settling below ambient air temperature even under the midday sun — with no electricity, no refrigerant and no moving parts. The margin is everything. Typical commercial white paints reflect on the order of 80 to 90 percent of sunlight; pushing reflectance past 95 percent means that, on a square metre of sunlit roof at noon, more than a hundred additional watts of heat simply never enter the building.

Engineered at the microscale, such a paint is what the authors call a photonic composite — a material whose architecture, not merely its chemistry, determines its interaction with light. The recipe is a negotiation between polymer science and optics. A binder, typically an acrylic, silicone or waterborne polymer, holds the film together and anchors it to the substrate, while dispersed fillers do the optical heavy lifting. Solar reflection is dominated by scattering: when dielectric particles with a high refractive index — titanium dioxide, barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, silica — are suspended in a low-index medium at diameters comparable to the wavelengths of sunlight, Mie scattering redirects photons in every direction before they can be absorbed. Pigment choice matters down to the electron: the wide bandgap of titanium dioxide blocks visible absorption but leaves it hungry for ultraviolet light, which triggers photocatalytic degradation of the very binder meant to protect it, and this is one reason researchers have pursued barium sulfate, hollow particles, porous networks and engineered air voids as alternative scattering media. Particle size distribution matters as much as pigment identity, because scattering efficiency peaks when particle dimensions match the wavelengths being scattered, and film thickness must be great enough to intercept every photon yet light enough to dry, adhere and add negligible load to a roof. Thermal emission, meanwhile, is a bond-stretching phenomenon: the collective silicon–oxygen and aluminium–oxygen vibrations of common oxides resonate almost perfectly inside the 8-to-13-micrometre atmospheric window, converting the paint’s surface into an antenna for Earth’s heat.

It is at the interfaces between these components, the review contends, that the field has been fooling itself. Most published studies treat binders and fillers as independent, idealised phases — an assumption, the authors write, that “fails to capture the complexity of practical PRCP systems.” In a real coating, filler particles touch, cluster and align; polymer chains wet, wrap and bridge them; dispersants and rheology modifiers crowd the junctions; and drying leaves gradients of composition, porosity and roughness through the film’s thickness. Filler–filler coupling can multiply scattering through multiple reflections between neighbouring particles or squander it in optically dead agglomerates. Binder–filler coupling alters both optics and mechanics, changing how light refracts at each buried interface and how the film resists cracking, soiling and ultraviolet attack. Because of this coupling, the optical properties of the whole are not the weighted average of the parts. Single-component models, the review argues, systematically mispredict how much sunlight a practical paint reflects and how much heat it emits — which helps explain why formulations that look superb on a spectrometer so often disappoint in the field.

The review’s central contribution is to fold this complexity — intrinsic material properties, interfacial interactions and composite architectures — into a single analytical frame, and then to bolt on everything that happens outside the paint can. Sky conditions come first. Atmospheric water vapour, clouds and aerosols narrow and attenuate the infrared window, so the same coating that drives a surface several degrees below air temperature in a dry desert climate may barely break even in the humid tropics; the window a paint radiates through is measurably narrower in Singapore than in Phoenix, and narrower still under monsoon clouds. Geometry comes second. The sky view factor — the fraction of the celestial hemisphere a surface can actually see — governs how much cold sky is available to radiate into, and it differs radically between an unobstructed roof and a shaded wall deep in an urban canyon. Building configuration, from roof pitch and insulation to the reflectivity of neighbouring facades, rewrites the surface heat budget in ways no laboratory spectrometer captures. These external factors, the authors argue, are rarely integrated into material-level analyses, and that omission accounts for much of the stubborn gap between reported and real-world performance.

The consequences scale from a single wall to an entire city. Buildings consume a large share of global electricity, much of it peaking with air conditioning on hot afternoons, so a coating that passively rejects solar heat before it enters the envelope translates directly into avoided generation and avoided emissions. But deployment is not trivial. High-rise buildings offer far less roof area than floor area, pushing cooling paints onto facades where solar angles, rain washing, soiling and fire regulations all differ. Adjacent structures exchange radiation with one another rather than with the sky, so a “cool” wall facing a sun-baked neighbour is radiating into a heat source, not a heat sink. Urban heat islands raise the very ambient temperature the coating is fighting. The review’s position is that material design and deployment context must be co-optimized: a best paint is only best relative to a climate, a latitude, a building type and a sky, and only by coupling paint-level models with building energy simulation and urban climate modelling can credible energy savings and emission reductions be projected.

Beyond cooling alone, the survey charts a multifunctional agenda that reads like a wish list for coatings engineers. Weathering resistance is paramount: ultraviolet radiation embrittles binders, dust, pollen and biological growth erode reflectance season by season, and daily thermal cycling fatigues films, so a cooling paint that loses its optical edge within a few summers quietly erases its own savings. Flame retardancy matters wherever such coatings blanket facades and rooftops in fire-prone cities. Thermal adaptivity addresses a genuine paradox of always-on cooling paints, which can penalize buildings in winter by suppressing welcome solar gain; thermochromic and otherwise responsive formulations promise strong cooling on scorching days and a lighter touch when the season turns, effectively giving a wall a thermostat. And the field’s environmental credentials are under scrutiny, with the authors highlighting sustainable formulations — waterborne and bio-derived binders, fillers that can be sourced and recovered responsibly, and chemistries chosen with an eye on the entire life cycle of the film.

The review closes with a sober accounting of what remains unresolved. Standardized characterization — full solar reflectance spectra, thermal emittance measurements, weathering data and honest descriptions of test-site climate — is needed before results from different laboratories can be meaningfully compared. Long-term field trials across climates must replace brief demonstration campaigns. Manufacturing must catch up with physics: the dispersion control that produces an ideal microstructure on a glass slide has to survive high-volume mixing, pumping, spraying and years of storage in a drum. And the materials community must engage the people who write building codes, procurement contracts and life-cycle assessments, because a paint saves carbon only when it is specified, applied, maintained and eventually disposed of at scale. The work was funded by the Australian Government through the Australian Research Council under project DP230100688, and the paper is published open access, with open-access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its member institutions.

None of this dims the promise; it sharpens it. Demand for cooling is growing faster than almost any other end use of electricity as heatwaves lengthen and intensify, and the technologies that blunt that demand most cheaply — insulation, ventilation, and surfaces that simply refuse to absorb sunlight in the first place — remain the least celebrated. A cooling paint is arguably the most scalable of all: it needs no exotic supply chain beyond mature pigment chemistry, no installation expertise beyond a spray rig and a roller, and no behaviour change beyond the decision to specify it. What it does need, the Adelaide-led team concludes, is to be engineered as what it truly is — not a pigment formulation but a photonic system coupled to a climate, a building and a city. If the framework they propose takes hold, the humble paint can may earn its place among genuine climate infrastructure: a film a few hundred micrometres thick, quietly flinging the Sun’s energy back into the void, one rooftop at a time.