Print awareness is the umbrella term for a child’s understanding of the functional, formal, and rule-based aspects of written language. It covers knowing that print carries meaning, recognizing the visual characteristics of written symbols, and grasping the conventions that govern how text is organized. Decades of research have linked this skill to later reading achievement, and even to language and mathematics performance in elementary school. In China, where children must master a logographic writing system built from thousands of visually complex characters, print awareness is especially demanding. A child who notices that the water radical in the character for river signals a water-related meaning is integrating structural and functional knowledge in a way that has no direct parallel in alphabetic literacy.

The research team, led by Jun Zhang and Deqiang Wang of Hebei Normal University with colleagues from Huainan Normal University and the Joint Education Institute of Zhejiang Normal University and the University of Kansas, recruited fifty senior kindergarten children aged five to six from two intact classes in an urban kindergarten in Shijiazhuang. Using cluster randomization at the classroom level, one class of twenty-five children became the experimental group and the other twenty-five the control group. Children in the experimental group received a six-week gamified picture-book intervention, one session per week lasting thirty to thirty-five minutes, while the control group continued with the kindergarten’s regular picture-book instruction, consisting of teacher-led reading, storytelling, and independent reading without systematic game elements.

The intervention was anything but a bolted-on reward system. Each weekly session followed a structured arc of fun introduction, interactive understanding, game-based exploration, and creative expression, transforming print-awareness objectives into game tasks with challenges, role engagement, cooperative inquiry, and immediate feedback. In the first week, children played Bodies into Characters, using their bodies to form simple characters such as person, big, and mouth, before hunting for hidden print-picture cards as classroom explorers. Later weeks had children acting as symbol detectives sorting punctuation marks and character cards into unlabeled symbol homes, spinning a diary wheel to match print-picture cards after reading Diary of a Worm, assembling characters from basic stroke cards while wearing caterpillar headbands, and designing decorated print-picture signs for real classroom areas as little campus designers.

The researchers mapped every activity onto established gamification principles, including active participation, fun and curiosity, meaningful learning, social interaction, child agency, progressive challenge, and immediate feedback. Teachers and peers provided real-time feedback and rewards, tasks grew progressively more difficult across weeks, and children made independent decisions within game tasks, such as which radicals to locate first. After each session, the team interviewed the classroom teachers and adjusted the following week’s activities, shortening whole-group storytelling, simplifying game rules, adding small-group collaboration, and standardizing the introduction method to situation, role, and suspense to maximize engagement.

Print awareness was assessed before and after the intervention across three dimensions using an adapted version of a validated Chinese instrument. The Print Function Matching Test asked children to link sixteen common regular-script characters to their oracle bone script or pictorial origins, probing whether they understood the symbolic function of print. The Print Form Discrimination Task presented real and fake stimuli, including scribbles, letters, numerals, and characters whose contours had been altered to circular shapes or whose components had been displaced, requiring children to judge what counted as a real character. The Print Rule Judgment Task went deeper, presenting anomalous characters with incorrect components, rotated or mirrored elements, missing parts, or abnormal spacing, to test whether children grasped the combinatorial principles of Chinese character structure.

The statistical verdict was nuanced. Mixed analyses of variance revealed significant main effects of Time for all three dimensions, meaning children in both groups improved from pre-test to post-test, with moderate effect sizes for Print Function, Print Form, and Print Rules. Significant main effects of Group emerged for Print Function, F(1, 48) = 4.68, p = 0.033, and Print Form, F(1, 48) = 4.32, p = 0.040, each with a small effect size, with the experimental group scoring higher overall. However, no significant Time by Group interactions appeared for any dimension, and Print Rules showed no group difference at all. The authors are careful about what this means: the gains over time likely reflect general developmental progress, and the group differences suggest the gamified activities provided additional support rather than accelerated growth.

Why did the intervention appear to help Print Function and Print Form but not Print Rules? The researchers point to the alignment between the game activities and the cognitive demands of each dimension. Print Function and Print Form can be experienced directly through meaningful uses of print and the visual exploration, identification, and manipulation of written symbols in playful contexts. Print Rules, by contrast, involve abstract orthographic knowledge about character composition, component arrangement, and writing principles, which typically develops through repeated exposure, explicit teacher guidance, and sustained structured practice. A six-week program emphasizing active engagement, collaboration, and visual exploration may simply be insufficient for that dimension, the team suggests, pointing to a limitation of the current intervention rather than evidence of its effectiveness for Print Rules.

The study also carries a pointed message for policy. Chinese education guidelines from 2001 and 2012 emphasize developmentally appropriate early literacy through play rather than premature formal schooling, and a 2018 notice specifically targeted the elimination of primary-schooling tendencies in kindergartens. Yet the authors note that following these policies, some teachers have become so cautious about print-related activities that they reduce children’s opportunities to engage with written symbols even when those activities are developmentally appropriate and play-based. The researchers frame their intervention as a demonstration that playful, gamified print engagement can coexist with, and even enrich, play-based pedagogy, offering a middle path between schoolification and print avoidance.

The team acknowledges important limitations. The sample was small and drawn from a single kindergarten, the intervention lasted only six weeks with one session per week, and the absence of significant interaction effects means the observed gains cannot be attributed exclusively to the program, since children in both groups continued routine literacy activities and ongoing maturation. The study also measured only print awareness, not whether gains transferred to vocabulary, character recognition, or later reading achievement, and outcomes were assessed only immediately after the intervention. Still, the authors conclude that children’s print awareness can develop within literacy-rich, game-based classroom environments, and that different dimensions of print awareness respond differently to instruction, a finding they hope will guide the design of developmentally appropriate, gamified early literacy activities in Chinese kindergartens and beyond.

Subject of Research: Early Childhood Education

Article Title: An interventional study on enhancing print awareness in senior kindergarten children through gamified picture book teaching

Article References: Zhang, J., Liu, J., Xu, Y., Yuan, S., Sun, T., & Wang, D. (2026). An interventional study on enhancing print awareness in senior kindergarten children through gamified picture book teaching. Frontiers in Education, 11, Article 1821282. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2026.1821282

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3389/feduc.2026.1821282

Keywords: print awareness, gamified picture book teaching, early literacy, kindergarten education, playful learning, Chinese characters, randomized controlled trial, emergent literacy, interventional, enhancing, print, awareness