Deep-blue LEDs have been a formidable target for researchers due to their intrinsic complexity. Achieving efficient emission in the deep-blue spectral region is notoriously difficult because of wide bandgap materials’ poor charge carrier dynamics, fast non-radiative recombination, and limited stability under operational conditions. Traditional semiconductors often suffer from low luminous efficiency, color instability, and short operational lifespan when scaled to commercial viability. CsPbBr3 perovskite materials, however, have emerged as promising candidates thanks to their remarkable optical properties, including high photoluminescence quantum yield, narrow emission bandwidth, and tunable bandgap. Yet, challenges in controlling their morphology and surface chemistry have restrained their practical applications—an obstacle effectively tackled by the researchers in this study.

The team employed cutting-edge synthetic techniques to fabricate colloidal CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets, ultra-thin nanostructures characterized by strong quantum confinement effects that precisely tune their emission wavelength into the coveted deep-blue range. These nanoplatelets feature an enhanced exciton binding energy and a reduced dielectric screening environment, enabling them to circumvent the efficiency roll-off that plagues bulk perovskite films. The colloidal approach also offers exceptional control over size distribution and crystalline quality, directly translating into improved device uniformity and reproducibility—key parameters for industry adoption.

What distinguishes this work is not only the synthesis of high-quality nanoplatelets but also their integration into functional LEDs exhibiting high external quantum efficiency (EQE) and brightness metrics that rival or surpass existing blue-emitting diodes. The devices demonstrated a remarkable balance of electrical and optical properties, with minimal efficiency droop even at high drive currents. This effect significantly enhances the operational stability and luminous efficacy of the LEDs—attributes essential for practical deployment in commercial displays and solid-state lighting applications.

Central to the performance enhancement is the meticulous surface passivation strategy employed by the researchers. Surface defects in perovskite nanocrystals typically act as non-radiative recombination centers, severely hampering device efficiency. By optimizing ligand chemistry and employing innovative passivation molecules tailored for CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets, the team minimized trap states and enhanced carrier lifetime without compromising charge injection. This precise interface engineering contributes directly to the devices’ superior photoluminescence and overall stability under continuous electrical excitation.

The newly developed LEDs also uniquely satisfy the Rec.2020 color standard, a comprehensive color gamut specification mandated for ultra-high-definition television (UHDTV) and emerging display technologies. Compliance with Rec.2020 ensures unparalleled color purity and saturation, allowing displays to render images with breathtaking realism and vividness. Achieving deep-blue emission with such fidelity has been a major bottleneck until now, and this work propels perovskite-based LEDs into the spotlight as serious contenders for commercial display solutions.

Beyond displays, the implications for lighting technology are equally profound. Deep-blue LEDs are vital components in phosphor-converted white LEDs, where their spectral qualities influence color rendering indices and energy efficiency. The low energy consumption and long operational lifetime exhibited by the CsPbBr3 nanoplatelet LEDs promise to contribute substantially to greener lighting solutions, reducing the carbon footprint of illumination technologies worldwide.

While perovskite materials have been extensively studied in photovoltaic and optoelectronic contexts, their integration into blue-emitting LEDs with stability and efficiency has remained elusive. This research addresses intrinsic material challenges and device-level optimization synergistically, showcasing a comprehensive approach from nanoscale engineering to macroscopic device fabrication. The success validates the potential of colloidal perovskite nanostructures as a versatile platform for advanced photonic devices.

The research group’s methodological innovations also include advanced characterization techniques, such as time-resolved photoluminescence and transient absorption spectroscopy, which elucidate the fundamental photophysical processes underpinning the improved device performance. These insights reveal suppressed non-radiative pathways and enhanced exciton dynamics resulting from the quantum-confined nanoplatelet architecture, shedding light on universal design guidelines for other perovskite compositions and device configurations.

Furthermore, the scalability of the synthetic process is emphasized, paving the way for large-area fabrication methods compatible with roll-to-roll coating and printing technologies. This attribute aligns well with industry demands for high-throughput, low-cost manufacturing of next-generation optoelectronic components, suggesting a viable route from laboratory prototype to commercial product.

Environmental stability, traditionally a significant hurdle for perovskite materials due to their sensitivity to moisture, oxygen, and heat, has also been addressed. The incorporation of robust encapsulation layers and chemical stabilization protocols within the devices prolongs their functional lifespan under ambient operating conditions, reinforcing their suitability for real-world applications.

Complementing the device performance, the researchers also demonstrate precise tuning of the emission wavelength by controlling the thickness of the nanoplatelets at the atomic scale, showcasing the exquisite tailoring possible within this material system. This capability permits the fine adjustment of spectral outputs to match stringent industry requirements for various display and lighting technologies, broadening the technology’s applicability.

The convergence of high efficiency, color purity, stability, and scalability embodied in these CsPbBr3 nanoplatelet LEDs represents a pivotal step toward overcoming the long-standing difficulties associated with deep-blue light emitters. This advancement opens exciting pathways for perovskite materials well beyond photovoltaic energy conversion, firmly establishing their role in the next wave of photonic devices.

Looking ahead, the research community anticipates integrating these LEDs with flexible substrates and sophisticated device architectures, pushing toward flexible displays, wearable electronics, and integrated photonic circuits. The unique properties of colloidal perovskite nanoplatelets could facilitate miniaturized light sources with unparalleled performance metrics.

This research exemplifies the synergy between materials chemistry, nanotechnology, and device engineering, highlighting how fundamental scientific insights can translate into technologies that redefine industry standards. The success empowers a new paradigm where quantum-confined perovskite nanostructures deliver on their long-promised potential as tunable, efficient, and vibrant optoelectronic emitters.

In summary, the achievement of efficient deep-blue LEDs based on colloidal CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets marks a transformative advance in the field of light emission. It overcomes significant material and device hurdles, meets the exacting Rec.2020 color standard, and charts a clear path toward commercial viability. This work heralds a new era of high-performance perovskite optoelectronics set to impact displays, lighting, and beyond with stunning visual fidelity and energy efficiency.

Article References:
Song, Y., Cao, S., Wang, Y. et al. Efficient deep-blue LEDs based on colloidal CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets meeting the Rec.2020 standard. Light Sci Appl 14, 336 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-025-02019-1

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-025-02019-1

Photocatalytic CO₂ reduction has long presented an alluring avenue to address both energy scarcity and greenhouse gas mitigation. However, the fundamental obstacles inherent to many existing photocatalysts—namely, limited active site accessibility and rapid recombination of photoinduced charge carriers—have impeded widespread application. The breakthrough with BiOCl atomic layers surmounts these barriers by leveraging ultrathin nanoscale engineering and electronic structure modulation, thereby optimizing charge dynamics and surface chemistry to expedite CO₂ conversion.

At the heart of this advancement lies the strategic transformation of bulk BiOCl into atomically thin layers through a meticulous exfoliation process. Initially synthesized via hydrothermal methods, the BiOCl nanosheets (BOCNSs) undergo liquid-phase ultrasonication in isopropanol, resulting in atomic layer variants referred to as BOCNSs-i. These atomically thin sheets exhibit drastically reduced thicknesses, thereby amplifying the surface-to-volume ratio and profoundly increasing the exposure of electron-rich bismuth active sites essential for CO₂ activation.

The photocatalytic prowess of BOCNSs-i is striking. Under simulated solar illumination at 1.7 suns intensity, the catalyst achieves a CO evolution rate of 134.8 micromoles per gram per hour—an impressive figure that underscores its capacity for efficient light harvesting and conversion. When subjected to concentrated solar irradiation at 34 suns, this performance escalates remarkably, reaching CO production rates of 13.3 millimoles per gram per hour. Importantly, oxygen evolution accompanies CO at the stoichiometric ratio of two-to-one, confirming the catalyst’s capacity for overall CO₂ splitting rather than partial reduction.

This enhanced performance is intricately tied to the material’s exceptional charge carrier dynamics. Photoluminescence analyses reveal significantly prolonged lifetimes of photogenerated electrons and holes within BOCNSs-i compared to their bulk counterparts. The atomic layer configuration inherently shortens the diffusion path for charge carriers, minimizing recombination losses and facilitating the rapid transfer of electrons toward surface active sites. Simultaneously, an intensified built-in electric field across the ultrathin layers further promotes the separation of charges, thereby sustaining elevated photocatalytic activity.

Crucially, the site-specific enrichment of electrons at bismuth centers within the atomic layers greatly influences the activation of CO₂ molecules. Investigations employing in situ spectroscopic techniques, including X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS), demonstrate that oxygen vacancies introduced during synthesis act as electron reservoirs. These vacancies modulate the electronic structure of the surface, lowering the activation energy required for the rate-determining step of CO₂ reduction. The enriched electrons at Bi sites enable stronger chemisorption and activation of CO₂, facilitating its conversion into CO with enhanced selectivity.

An often-overlooked factor in photocatalytic CO₂ reduction is the role of water vapor. In this system, the presence of H₂O vapor proves beneficial by enabling oxygen atom exchange mechanisms between water molecules and adsorbed CO₂. This dynamic exchange assists in maintaining surface oxygen vacancies and reinforces catalytic turnover. As such, the synergy between the atomic layer architecture, vacancy engineering, and controlled reaction atmospheres collectively drives the observed superior catalytic behavior.

From a materials synthesis standpoint, the transformation of BiOCl nanosheets into atomic layers via ultrasonication in isopropanol showcases an elegant yet scalable methodology. The process not only thins the material to atomic-level thickness but also preserves its crystallinity and intrinsic photocatalytic attributes. This facile exfoliation technique holds promise for large-scale production of BOCNSs-i catalysts, an essential consideration for transitioning laboratory innovations into real-world applications.

The exceptional stability of BOCNSs-i under prolonged light irradiation further amplifies its practical utility. During extended photoreactions under concentrated solar fluxes, the catalyst maintains consistent activity without observable degradation. This robustness is vital for the deployment of photocatalytic systems in operational solar fuel generation setups, where durability directly influences economic and environmental feasibility.

The fundamental insights gained from this research extend beyond the specific catalyst studied. By establishing the relationship between atomic layer thickness, charge separation efficiency, oxygen vacancy-induced electronic modulation, and catalytic performance, the study lays down guiding principles for the design of next-generation photocatalysts. These principles can be extrapolated to other layered materials, potentially catalyzing a paradigm shift in solar-driven chemical transformations.

Looking ahead, the scientific community envisions exploring synergistic combinations of BiOCl atomic layers with complementary co-catalysts or alloying elements to further tailor surface electronic properties and enhance selectivity towards desired products. Additionally, optimizing reaction conditions such as light intensity, reactant concentrations, and reactor configurations may yield further improvements in efficiency and scalability.

As the momentum in photocatalytic CO₂ conversion builds, breakthroughs like the BOCNSs-i atomic layers underscore the profound impact of nanoscale engineering and electronic structure control. The work spearheaded by Professor Shaohua Shen and colleagues not only elevates the field’s understanding of photocatalytic mechanisms but also brings us closer to realizing sustainable, solar-driven chemical manufacturing technologies capable of mitigating climate change while generating renewable fuels.

Driven by an exquisite balance of materials design, mechanistic elucidation, and practical considerations, this research heralds a new era in photocatalytic innovation. The elegant manipulation of BiOCl at the atomic scale transforms it from a conventional semiconductor into a powerful platform for efficient CO₂ activation and conversion. As global efforts intensify to combat carbon emissions, such transformative approaches will be pivotal in developing green technologies that harmonize environmental stewardship and energy prosperity.

In conclusion, the synthesis and deployment of BiOCl atomic layers enriched with electron-rich active sites represent a compelling stride towards efficient, solar-powered CO₂ splitting. The merging of experimental rigor with insightful mechanistic studies provides a robust foundation for advancing photocatalytic science and technology. The promising results invite excitement for future developments that may unlock the full potential of sunlight-driven carbon conversion, propelling humanity toward a sustainable energy future.

Subject of Research: Photocatalytic CO₂ Conversion and Materials Engineering

Article Title: BiOCl Atomic Layers with Electrons Enriched Active Sites Exposed for Efficient Photocatalytic CO₂ Overall Splitting

News Publication Date: 18-Apr-2025

Web References:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01723-2

Image Credits: Ting Peng, Yiqing Wang, Chung-Li Dong, Ta Thi Thuy Nga, Binglan Wu, Yiduo Wang, Qingqing Guan, Wenjie Zhang, Shaohua Shen

Keywords

Photocatalysis, CO₂ Conversion, BiOCl Atomic Layers, Charge Carrier Dynamics, Oxygen Vacancies, Solar Fuels, Nanomaterials, Photochemical Splitting

Pure-red PeLEDs are indispensable for high-definition displays and advanced imaging technologies due to their specific emission wavelength and color fidelity. However, these devices often suffer from significant efficiency roll-off when driven under high current densities—a phenomenon that dramatically reduces their luminous output and hampers practical applications. The research team addressed this challenge by meticulously probing the underlying mechanisms that trigger efficiency decline. Employing an innovative technique known as electrically excited transient absorption spectroscopy, they directly observed the dynamic processes of charge carriers within working devices, identifying hole leakage as a critical source of efficiency loss.

This insightful discovery prompted the team to engineer a heterostructure inside the perovskite grains themselves. Traditionally, 3D CsPbI₃₋ₓBrₓ perovskites have exhibited excellent carrier mobility but lacked sufficient confinement for injected carriers, resulting in inefficiencies under operational conditions. The newly developed intragrain heterostructure cleverly integrates narrow bandgap emitter domains surrounded by wide bandgap barrier regions. This architecture effectively confines both electrons and holes, preventing undesirable leakage and non-radiative recombination pathways, which are prevalent in conventional homogenous perovskite films.

Achieving this heterostructure required a sophisticated chemical strategy to manipulate the perovskite lattice. The researchers introduced strongly bonding molecules into the [PbX₆]⁴⁻ octahedral framework. These molecules expanded the lattice of the 3D CsPbI₃₋ₓBrₓ perovskite, thereby creating wide bandgap barriers. Such lattice engineering is a subtle yet powerful approach: by tailoring the local electronic structure without compromising the material’s intrinsic transport properties, the team successfully established spatial carrier confinement within single grains, a feat rarely accomplished in perovskite LED technology.

The impact of this design is profound. The resulting pure-red PeLEDs demonstrated a record-high brightness level of 24,600 cd m⁻² and a maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 24.2%. More impressively, these devices exhibited remarkably low efficiency roll-off, maintaining an EQE of 10.5% even at an ultra-high luminance of 22,670 cd m⁻². Such performance metrics represent a significant leap forward compared to previous iterations of CsPbI₃₋ₓBrₓ based PeLEDs, which often suffered from rapid efficiency degradation beyond moderate luminance levels.

Beyond the sheer performance enhancements, the study highlights the vital role of intragrain nanostructuring in perovskite optoelectronics. By conceptualizing the emitter material as a heterostructured entity rather than a uniform lattice, researchers can finely tune the balance between charge injection, recombination, and leakage. This paradigm shift could inspire a wave of new material designs not only for LEDs but also for related applications such as laser diodes and photodetectors where carrier management is critical.

The refinement of carrier dynamics within crystalline grains further underscores the versatility of perovskite materials. Unlike traditional semiconductor heterostructures, often fabricated using complex epitaxial growth techniques, the molecular engineering approach demonstrated here offers a scalable and potentially low-cost route to heterostructured emitters. The chemical versatility inherent to perovskite frameworks allows for precise adjustments in lattice parameters and band alignments, unlocking functional architectures tailored to specific device requirements.

From a broader perspective, this work addresses one of the fundamental challenges in perovskite optoelectronics: how to reconcile the trade-off between device brightness and efficiency stability. High brightness often comes at the expense of efficiency due to the exacerbated influence of non-radiative pathways at elevated currents. By confining carriers and suppressing leakage-induced losses intrinsically within the grain structure, the newly engineered heterostructured perovskites break this trade-off, enabling devices that can operate at both high brightness and high efficiency.

The implications for display technology are especially exciting. Pure-red LEDs with such luminance and efficiency parameters can contribute to displays with wider color gamuts, improved energy efficiency, and better long-term stability. The progress demonstrated here brings perovskite-based displays tantalizingly close to commercialization, offering a competitive alternative to incumbent technologies such as organic LEDs and quantum dots.

Additionally, the methodological advances, particularly the use of electrically excited transient absorption spectroscopy, provide a powerful toolset for in situ characterization of operating devices. This technique enables researchers to visualize real-time carrier dynamics and uncover loss mechanisms that are otherwise challenging to diagnose. Such insights are essential for iterating material design and device architectures rapidly.

Future research building on this foundation is likely to explore the integration of similar heterostructures with other perovskite compositions and device configurations. Optimizing the molecular species used to modify the lattice, exploring different dimensionalities, and enhancing the stability under operational stress are promising avenues. The principle of intragrain heterostructuring could also be extended towards multicolor emission and white light generation by carefully engineering band alignments and charge distributions.

In conclusion, the work by Song, YH., Li, B., Wang, ZJ., and colleagues marks a significant milestone in the quest for high-performance red perovskite LEDs. Their elegant combination of transient spectroscopy insights and lattice engineering has unlocked a unique pathway to devices featuring ultra-high brightness combined with exceptional efficiency and stability. This breakthrough promises to accelerate the adoption of perovskite LEDs in commercial applications and inspires a new phase of materials innovation across the optoelectronics domain.

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Subject of Research: Metal-halide perovskite materials and their application in high-performance pure-red perovskite LEDs.

Article Title: Intragrain 3D perovskite heterostructure for high-performance pure-red perovskite LEDs.

Article References:
Song, YH., Li, B., Wang, ZJ. et al. Intragrain 3D perovskite heterostructure for high-performance pure-red perovskite LEDs. Nature 641, 352–357 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08867-6

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08867-6

The exploration into the conductive pathways within F-spiro-NG was rigorously undertaken using differential photoconductivity measurements under direct current conditions. Utilizing microwave probes to monitor the localized dynamics of photo-injected charge carriers provided unprecedented granularity in understanding the intricate behaviors at play. When thin solid films of F-spiro-NG were exposed to tightly controlled pulses of ultraviolet light at 355 nanometers, charge movement within the material exhibited remarkable longevity and intensity, underscoring the material’s aptitude for sustaining conductive states. Such longevity in free charge carriers strongly correlates with improved performance prospects in devices relying on stable charge transport.

Parallel assessments with the related compound spiro-NG furnished valuable comparative insights. Both molecules manifested clear conductivity signals upon excitation; however, F-spiro-NG demonstrated a conductivity magnitude approximately three times greater than that of its predecessor. The maximum recorded conductivity for F-spiro-NG reached an impressive 3 × 10⁻⁷ m² V⁻¹ s⁻¹, a testament to its highly efficient charge mobility pathways. This enhancement is ascribed to the fundamental electronic structure modifications imparted by fluorination, which facilitates the stabilization of radical-ion states and expedites carrier movement through the molecular framework.

To quantify the mobility of these photo-injected charge carriers more precisely, transient absorption spectroscopy (TA) was employed. This technique allowed for real-time tracking of radical ion signatures, particularly at the wavelength of 430 nanometers. The spectra acquired aligned congruently with established electrochemical data delineating characteristic peaks of radical anions and cations formed via oxidation and reduction processes. Although discrepancies between the direct current conductivity measurements and TA kinetic traces were observed in the sub-microsecond domain, these were attributed primarily to the quenching influence of residual oxygen in the experimental environment, which affected the lifespan of nascent radical anions adversely.

A pivotal observation emerged at times beyond two microseconds, where both TA and differential photoconductivity traces exhibited close alignment, facilitating accurate estimations of intrinsic charge carrier mobility. By leveraging the known extinction coefficient of radical cations of F-spiro-NG, the researchers computed a quantum yield (ϕ⁺) of 5 × 10⁻⁴. This, in turn, yielded a mobility estimation (Σμ) of approximately 6 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹, a strikingly high figure for organic semiconductors and a clear indicator of the material’s potential viability for high-performance photoconductive applications.

The implications of these findings resonate beyond mere academic interest. Organic optoelectronic materials with such elevated charge carrier mobilities could revolutionize technologies ranging from solar energy harvesting to photodetectors and flexible electronic displays. The bilayer spironanographene structure, with its open-shell and zwitterionic attributes, represents a formidable platform for tailoring electronic features via molecular design. By exploiting radical-ion states stabilized within this framework, researchers have opened new avenues to surmount traditional limitations encountered in organic semiconductors.

Further structural analysis suggests that the spiro-linked bilayer configuration fosters spatial separation of charges, reducing recombination rates that typically diminish device efficiencies. The fluorinated variant, F-spiro-NG, benefits from electronic perturbations due to the electronegative substituents, effectively modulating frontier molecular orbitals to favor charge mobility and stabilize transient charges. This nuanced understanding of structure–property relationships is instrumental in guiding synthetic strategies targeting bespoke molecular systems optimized for specific electronic functions.

Interrogation of the photophysical responses under intense pulsed laser exposure revealed subtle dynamical processes influencing charge carrier generation and decay. The coexistence and temporal evolution of radical ions were captured with temporal resolution that demystified the interactions governing the longevity and transport of charges in solid-state films. Importantly, these studies consider real-world ambient conditions, underscoring the robustness of F-spiro-NG toward application environments which are rarely pristine or oxygen-free.

This research effort exemplifies the synergistic application of complementary techniques—microwave differential photoconductivity alongside transient absorption spectroscopy—to dissect complex photogenerated charge dynamics. Such methodological rigor provides a blueprint for future explorations within the field, emphasizing the need to concurrently address carrier generation, mobility, and recombination mechanisms for complete materials characterization. The high mobility values observed in F-spiro-NG challenge prevailing paradigms and hint at the unrealized potential embedded within carefully crafted open-shell organic systems.

Moreover, the study’s findings hold promise for the engineering of molecular electronic devices that require stable radical intermediates as active charge carriers. The unusually high mobility and prolonged lifetimes elevate F-spiro-NG beyond a mere academic curiosity, positioning it as a candidate for transistors and photovoltaic components where electron and hole transport efficiency is paramount. Harnessing open-shell molecules in such contexts further invites exploration into spintronic applications, where control over radical spins can influence device functionality in novel ways.

The emergent theme from this work highlights the power of molecular design in transcending inherent limitations of organic semiconductors. By integrating zwitterionic open-shell characteristics within bilayer spironanographenes, the researchers have demonstrated a versatile platform where electronic and structural parameters can be fine-tuned to elicit desired transport behaviors. This modularity paves the way for rational development of organic materials capable of rivaling inorganic counterparts on efficiency and stability metrics.

Importantly, this investigation adds to a growing body of knowledge emphasizing the crucial role of supramolecular interactions in dictating electronic properties. The supramolecular assembly of perylene units, modulated by fluorination and spiro linkage, orchestrates an environment where charge carriers experience extended delocalization and minimized traps. These collective behaviors underpin the enhanced photoconductivity and mobility outcomes, reinforcing the notion that molecular packing and aggregate morphology are integral to device performance.

Looking forward, research inspired by these findings is anticipated to delve deeper into the interplay between molecular structure, excited-state dynamics, and charge transport phenomena. Opportunities abound to explore systematic modifications to the spironanographene framework with alternative substituents, spin states, or layered arrangements, each offering pathways to tailor optoelectronic responses. Additionally, probing device architectures that incorporate F-spiro-NG films promises to validate and harness these promising intrinsic properties in functional settings.

In sum, the innovative work on F-spiro-NG elucidates compelling evidence that zwitterionic, open-shell bilayer spironanographenes are powerful candidates for next-generation organic photoconductors. Through meticulous experimentation combining differential photoconductivity and transient absorption spectroscopy, the material reveals exceptional charge mobility and radical ion persistence, hallmark traits critical for high-impact optoelectronic applications. This study not only elevates scientific understanding of radical-ion mediated conduction but also serves as a clarion call for the broader adoption of open-shell molecular architectures in practical device engineering.

Subject of Research: Synthesis and photoconductive properties of zwitterionic open-shell bilayer spironanographenes, focusing on charge carrier dynamics and mobility in novel fluorinated spiro-linked materials.

Article Title: Synthesis of zwitterionic open-shell bilayer spironanographenes.

Article References:
Lión-Villar, J., Fernández-García, J.M., Medina Rivero, S. et al. Synthesis of zwitterionic open-shell bilayer spironanographenes. Nat. Chem. (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-025-01810-2

Image Credits: AI Generated