The focal point of this inquiry revolves around the design and implementation of an evolutionary campaign that finely tunes DNA polymerases’ selectivity. The researchers initiated their study with a library derived from homologous recombination, a technique known for its ability to precisely splice together fragments of DNA. This library serves as a genetic reservoir from which the team can sift through various polymerase variants. By harnessing advanced techniques in synthetic biology and evolutionary theory, the researchers sought to streamline the process of polymerase optimization, thus addressing the inherent limitations found in natural enzymes.

To facilitate effective selection within this engineered polymerase library, the researchers adopted a single-cell droplet-based microfluidic selection strategy. This cutting-edge methodology allows for the rapid processing and assessment of thousands of individual polymerase variants in parallel, significantly accelerating traditional screening methods. By encapsulating single cells in tiny droplets, the researchers can ensure that the interactions between different polymerases and their substrates occur in a controlled environment, essentially creating a high-throughput pathway for identifying candidates with exceptional RNA synthesis capabilities.

After rigorous testing and selection, the evolutionary journey culminated in the emergence of a highly promising candidate: C28. This newly engineered polymerase exhibited remarkable proficiency in synthesizing RNA, boasting an impressive rate of approximately 3 nucleotides per second while maintaining over 99% fidelity. Such high-fidelity synthesis is paramount for applications that require precise replication of genetic material, underscoring the utility of C28 in both research and therapeutic contexts. The achievement of this engineering milestone signifies a significant leap forward for synthetic biology, providing researchers with a versatile tool to manipulate RNA in innovative ways.

The versatility of C28 extends beyond mere RNA synthesis; it demonstrates the capability for long-range RNA synthesis, reverse transcription, and the amplification of chimeric DNA-RNA hybrids through polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The ability to conduct these processes effectively is a game-changer for molecular biology, allowing for the study of complex genetic interactions and enabling the synthesis of artificial genetic systems that were previously unattainable. The work exemplifies how directed evolution can be harnessed to create enzymes with multifaceted functions, amplifying the potential for diverse applications in fields ranging from diagnostics to therapeutics.

Adding to the significance of C28’s design is its marked ability to accept various base-modified RNA analogs and 2′F nucleic acids, which have been traditionally challenging for standard polymerases. The flexibility to work with modified substrates expands the utility of C28 in crafting innovative RNA molecules that could potentially overcome the limitations of naturally occurring nucleic acids. Such modifications can lead to enhanced stability and activity in biological systems, highlighting the potential applications of C28 in developing novel therapeutics and biotechnological solutions.

The authors of this research underline the power of combining evolutionary biology with molecular engineering to achieve breakthroughs in synthetic biology. Their innovative approach not only illuminates the potential of directed evolution as a strategy for reprogramming enzymes but also showcases how interdisciplinary methods can propel scientific discovery forward. The results achieved with C28 hold promise for addressing challenges across various biotechnological domains, suggesting that similar methodologies could be applied to other enzyme families in pursuit of novel functionalities.

As the field of synthetic biology continues to advance, the significance of engineered polymerases like C28 cannot be overstated. The impact extends beyond the laboratory, potentially informing the future of genetic research and therapies. The ability to design and utilize polymerases tailored for specific RNA synthesis tasks underscores the accelerating pace of discovery in biotechnology. Researchers are now better equipped to explore gene editing, RNA therapeutics, and the development of new molecular tools that could redefine the operational landscape of genomic manipulation.

The implications of this work resonate through various applications, particularly in the realm of medicinal science. As RNA plays an increasingly pivotal role in the landscape of drug development, including the rise of RNA-based vaccines and therapies, the proficiency of tools like C28 could be instrumental in realizing future healthcare innovations. The fidelity and speed offered by C28 could facilitate the rapid development of RNA molecules necessary for therapeutic applications, driving forward strides in personalized medicine and targeted therapies.

The findings of this research not only contribute to the understanding of polymerase evolution but also serve as a catalyst for further exploration of synthetic pathways in biology. By expanding the toolbox available to scientists, the study invites researchers to consider new strategies for addressing complex biological problems. As more teams adopt similar directed evolution methodologies, we can expect to see a significant acceleration in the development of tailored biotechnological applications.

Moreover, the exploration of artificial nucleic acids and noncognate interactions opens the door to the development of novel genetic circuits and systems. The implications of such pathways could transform our comprehension of cellular processes and genetic regulation. The continued evolution of engineered polymerases like C28 paves the way for synthetic nucleic acid systems that are capable of performing complex functions previously thought impossible, marking a pivotal moment in the journey towards more sophisticated biological engineering.

As researchers delve deeper into the mechanics of RNA synthesis and the engineering of nucleic acids, the need for innovative enzymes like C28 will only increase. Their synthesis prowess can address current limitations while opening avenues for new discoveries that blend the boundaries of artificial and natural biology. With each stride taken in directed evolution and synthetic biology, the future becomes more vivid with possibilities, encouraging the next wave of scientific exploration and technological advancement.

The meticulous work in engineering C28 is emblematic of a broader trend in biotechnology, one that embraces creativity, collaboration, and rigorous experimentation. As noted by the authors, the path they forged serves as a testament to the power of scientific inquiry propelled by innovative strategies. The evolution of polymerases such as C28 will undoubtedly propel the field forward, promising an exciting future for both researchers and the global community as we navigate the intricate world of genetic engineering.

In conclusion, the study depicting the rapid evolution of a highly efficient RNA polymerase illuminates the vast potential that lies at the intersection of molecular biology and evolutionary theory. As scientists continue to explore and refine methodologies for engineering nucleic acids, the advancements heralded by discoveries like C28 signal significant progress and promise for both fundamental research and applied biotechnology. The future is bright for synthetic biology, distinguished by the emergence of novel tools and techniques that will unlock the mysteries of life and propel science into uncharted territories.

Subject of Research: Engineering DNA polymerases for RNA synthesis

Article Title: Rapid evolution of a highly efficient RNA polymerase by homologous recombination

Article References:

Medina, E.L., Maola, V.A., Hajjar, M. et al. Rapid evolution of a highly efficient RNA polymerase by homologous recombination.
Nat Chem Biol (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41589-025-02124-7

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41589-025-02124-7

Keywords: Synthetic biology, DNA polymerase, RNA synthesis, directed evolution, homologous recombination.

At the heart of this transformation lies the unprecedented ability to harness vast amounts of data. Modern pharmaceutical companies are navigating an expansive sea of health data, from patient histories to genomic information. By deploying advanced analytical tools, they can derive actionable insights that tailor drug development processes more closely to patient needs. This convergence of technology and pharmacology paves the way for personalized medicine, where treatments are customized based on the genetic profile of individuals, thereby enhancing efficacy and minimizing adverse reactions.

A particularly striking development is the emergence of artificial intelligence as a catalyst for innovation. Machine learning algorithms can now identify patterns in data that were previously obscured from human analysts. This capability allows researchers to predict patient responses to treatments with greater accuracy, reducing the time and costs associated with clinical trials. Innovation labs are at the forefront of integrating AI into every phase, from drug discovery to post-market surveillance, fostering a new paradigm in healthcare that prioritizes agility and adaptability.

Moreover, these innovation labs are not confined within the walls of pharmaceutical companies; they often collaborate with academic institutions and tech companies. Such partnerships amplify the pool of expertise and resources, enabling more groundbreaking research. These collaborative ecosystems encourage the exchange of ideas and technologies that can expedite the development of novel therapies targeting pressing health issues. The synergy between academia, industry, and technology sectors creates a fertile environment for groundbreaking discoveries that can lead to significant health improvements.

Additionally, innovation labs are playing a crucial role in regulatory affairs, navigating the complex landscape of healthcare regulations. By staying ahead of regulatory trends and engaging early with regulatory bodies, these labs can advocate for frameworks that support innovation while ensuring patient safety. This proactive approach enhances the overall efficiency of the development process and paves the way for quicker access to cutting-edge therapies for patients in need.

There is also a noteworthy aspect of how innovation labs are utilizing digital health technologies to expand the reach and impact of pharmaceutical solutions. Telemedicine, mobile health applications, and wearable devices are increasingly being integrated into treatment protocols. These technologies not only enhance patient engagement but also provide continuous monitoring of health outcomes, allowing for real-time adjustments in treatment plans. By leveraging digital health solutions, pharmaceutical companies can gather more comprehensive data on drug efficacy and safety, ultimately improving patient care.

The push for sustainability in healthcare is another critical issue that innovation labs are addressing. Many pharmaceutical companies are adopting practices that reduce their environmental footprint, such as employing green chemistry principles and rethinking supply chain logistics. By prioritizing sustainable practices, these innovation labs not only respond to regulatory pressures but also align with the growing consumer demand for environmentally friendly healthcare solutions. This shift towards sustainability indicates a broader trend of corporate responsibility seeping into the pharmaceutical sector.

However, the journey toward transformative health solutions is not without challenges. As these labs advance their capabilities, issues of data privacy and security come to the forefront. The increased reliance on data-driven insights necessitates robust frameworks to safeguard sensitive patient information. Striking a balance between innovation and privacy will be vital for maintaining public trust and ensuring that the benefits of technological advancements are not overshadowed by ethical concerns.

Moreover, the complexities of global healthcare disparities cannot be overlooked. While innovation labs have the potential to drive revolutionary changes, equitable access to new therapies remains a significant challenge. Addressing the needs of underrepresented populations and ensuring that advancements in drug development reach diverse groups is crucial for truly transformative healthcare. Pharmaceutical companies are being called upon to prioritize health equity and invest in strategies that democratize access to innovative treatments.

The COVID-19 pandemic has further accelerated the evolution of pharmaceutical innovation. The urgency to respond to a global health crisis has galvanized innovation labs to streamline processes and adopt agile methodologies. As a result, there have been remarkable breakthroughs in vaccine development, exemplifying how challenges can spur innovation. This prevailing mindset, cultivated by the pandemic, may continue to shape the future of drug development, encouraging a focus on speed without sacrificing quality.

Furthermore, the landscape of investment in health technology is shifting dramatically. Investors are increasingly recognizing the potential of innovation labs as engines for growth within the pharmaceutical sector. Venture capital is flowing into biotech startups and health tech innovations that align with the strategic visions of established pharmaceutical companies. This financial backing fuels creativity and exploration, enabling labs to experiment with unconventional ideas that challenge the status quo in healthcare.

In summary, the article by Peralta and Sánchez provides a compelling glimpse into how big pharma’s innovation labs are not merely experimental units but central players in the evolving narrative of healthcare transformation. As these labs integrate cutting-edge technologies, foster collaboration, champion sustainability, and address ethical considerations, they redefine the path toward a more effective and equitable healthcare system. The future of pharmaceuticals lies in the ability to adapt swiftly to new challenges and leverage technological advancements, ensuring that the industry remains responsive to the world’s most pressing health needs.

The revolution underway in pharmaceutical innovation underscores an exciting era for healthcare, marked by possibilities that were once the realm of science fiction. The next decade will likely witness an acceleration of these trends, shaping the health solutions of tomorrow and the very fabric of public health. As the conversation around innovation in healthcare continues to evolve, it is crucial for all stakeholders—pharmaceutical companies, healthcare providers, policymakers, and patients—to engage in dialogues that prioritize progress while safeguarding ethical standards and equitable access.

Subject of Research: Transformation in Pharmaceutical Innovation through Innovation Labs

Article Title: Driving Health Transformation: Big Pharma’s Innovation Labs Revolution

Article References:

Peralta, G., Sánchez, B. Driving health transformation: big pharma’s innovation labs revolution.
Health Res Policy Sys 23, 138 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-025-01415-8

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-025-01415-8

Keywords: Pharmaceutical Innovation, Health Transformation, Data Science, AI in Healthcare, Personalized Medicine, Health Equity, Sustainability in Healthcare.

Conventional monovalent aptamers bind to a single site on their target, akin to throwing a bowl of spaghetti at a wall—while some may stick, many will miss their mark entirely. As the head of the Programmable Biomaterials Lab at EPFL, Maartje Bastings likens this approach to a random game where functional binding is not guaranteed. This limitation becomes particularly pronounced when dealing with proteins characterized by multidomain architectures, such as those found on viral surfaces. The trimeric nature of protein complexes like the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein presents three distinct binding sites, necessitating a more targeted approach to aptamer design.

The team recognized that enhancing the binding affinity of aptamers required a shift from a monovalent to a multivalent approach. With the creation of MEDUSA, researchers developed a molecular scaffold—an organized structure around which three aptamer binding units could assemble. This bioinspired strategy leverages the natural configurations observed in viruses where multiple binding sites collectively work to increase interaction strength and specificity. By mimicking the geometrical properties of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, the scaffolds allowed the aptamer library to preferentially select trimeric candidates that maintain functional binding characteristics.

Each binding unit is pivotal, as they partake in an intricate dance of molecular interactions when combined with the target protein. Through their carefully structured assemblies, the multimeric aptamers exhibit binding affinities that surpass those achieved with traditional monovalent binders by a factor of 10 to 1,000 times. Furthermore, the selectivity of the multivalent aptamers significantly enhances their diagnostic capabilities, an aspect of critical importance in the identification and treatment of infectious diseases.

The evolution of these multivalent binding agents involves iterative rounds of selection and amplification. By employing a rigorous evolutionary process, the researchers incrementally fine-tune and enhance the binding proficiency of aptamer candidates that initially demonstrate potential. This gradual yet methodical evolution—the process akin to natural selection—promises a streamlined pathway toward discovering highly effective binders. Although initial scaffold design can be accomplished in mere hours, the evolutionary phase can extend over weeks, hinting at potential bottlenecks in rapid deployment for clinical use.

One ambitious objective set forth by Bastings and her team is to expedite this evolutionary process to meet the demanding timelines often required in biomedical diagnostics and therapeutics. As global health challenges evolve, so too does the necessity for agile and effective binding agents capable of addressing diverse pathogen configurations. Future research aims to encompass more sophisticated pathogens, such as the Dengue virus, which possesses a six-binding subunit architecture, or anthrax, known for its seven-subunit complexity. These advances will hinge upon harnessing the newly discovered multivalent sequence space to train generative artificial intelligence (AI) models, theoretically automating and accelerating the discovery pipeline for potent binders.

Ultimately, MEDUSA stands poised to revolutionize the landscape of aptamer technology, emphasizing the importance of spatial organization in targeting complex proteins. This approach not only positions multimeric aptamers as formidable contenders in the realm of biosensors and therapeutics but also opens the door to investigating and potentially neutralizing a broader spectrum of infectious agents. With the research promising unprecedented levels of binding strength and specificity, the potential applications for MEDUSA-derived aptamers are vast and varied, hinting at a future where such innovative technologies could redefine our response to infectious diseases, enhancing both diagnostic and therapeutic efficacy.

The implications are profound, as the capacity to design tailored multivalent binders can fundamentally alter our ability to combat viral infections. Researchers stand on the cusp of translating these groundbreaking findings into real-world applications that may soon play crucial roles in public health. As the evolution of these multivalent agents continues, the synthesis of biochemistry and artificial intelligence may unlock innovative pathways in medicine, combining human ingenuity with computational precision to tackle some of the most challenging biomedical dilemmas. With ongoing enhancements and rapid development, the MEDUSA framework could pave the way for a new era of diagnostics and therapeutics, heralding significant advancements in our fight against pervasive viral threats.

Subject of Research: Development of multivalent aptamers for targeted protein binding.
Article Title: Evolution of multivalent supramolecular assemblies of aptamers with target-defined spatial organization.
News Publication Date: 6-Jun-2025.
Web References: Not applicable.
References: Nature Nanotechnology DOI 10.1038/s41565-025-01939-8.
Image Credits: 2025 PBL EPFL CC BY SA 4.0.
Keywords: Aptamers, Biosensors, Therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2, Monovalent Binders, Multimeric Assemblies, Biomedical Applications, Diagnostic Tools, Artificial Intelligence, Viral Infections.

The study highlights that while most organisms, including humans and plants, rely on oxygen to metabolize nutrients and produce energy, certain bacteria have evolved to rely on alternative methods for survival in oxygen-deprived environments. These environments can include deep-sea hydrothermal vents and the anaerobic conditions found in the human gut. The newly discovered mechanism showcases how these bacteria can use naturally occurring compounds known as naphthoquinones to transfer electrons outside the cell, a developmental feat that mimics the function of batteries discharging electric energy.

The significance of this discovery lies not only in solving a long-standing scientific enigma but also in suggesting that extracellular respiration may be a far more ubiquitous survival strategy across naturally occurring microbial communities. Until now, scientists had observed this phenomenon but did not possess a thorough understanding of the mechanisms involved. Ajo-Franklin and her team’s findings elucidate the complex interactions at play — demonstrating that naphthoquinones act as molecular messengers, easing the movement of electrons from inside the bacterial cells to external surfaces.

The researchers’ exploration into this molecular behavior emphasizes the interplay between biology and electrochemistry, an interdisciplinary approach that provides a deeper understanding of how bacteria can adapt their energy production methods to thrive in extremely challenging conditions. Their analysis revealed that bacteria could effectively generate electricity through these conductive surfaces, thereby showcasing a versatility in bacterial metabolism that challenges preconceived notions about the boundaries of life in low-oxygen environments.

The implications of this study go far beyond academic curiosity; they present practical applications that could reshape various biological processes. For instance, this newfound understanding offers potential pathways for enhancing biotechnological applications, such as in wastewater treatment and biomanufacturing processes. By managing the electron imbalances identified through this research, engineers and scientists could significantly increase the efficiency of these systems, ensuring they run optimally and sustainably.

Ajo-Franklin indicates that their findings pave the way for integrating bacteria in renewable energy technologies. Just as plants capture sunlight during photosynthesis, these electricity-producing bacteria could help mitigate carbon dioxide levels by harnessing electricity in a manner akin to green photosynthetic processes. She envisions a future where innovative technologies leverage the unique capabilities of microbiota to create more sustainable solutions for energy production.

In collaboration with the Palsson lab at the University of California San Diego, the Rice team employed advanced computer modeling techniques to simulate bacterial growth in oxygen-free environments rich in conductive materials. The simulations corroborated their hypotheses, indicating that bacteria could sustain themselves by discharging electrons through these surfaces. This unique form of anaerobic growth diverges from traditional understanding, suggesting a robust metabolic adaptability among bacteria capable of thriving without atmospheric oxygen.

Further laboratory trials solidified confidence in this research, confirming that the bacteria maintained their growth and electricity generation when placed onto conductive media. Observations of this phenomenon not only demonstrate the tenacity of microbial life but also indicate practical strategies for real-time monitoring and influencing bacterial behavior through electronic interfaces.

Drawing on these discoveries, the potential for practical applications seems limitless. Beyond applications in wastewater treatment plants, bacteria capable of generating electricity may lead to innovative bioelectronic sensors that function effectively in oxygen-deprived areas. These sensors could offer valuable insights into medical diagnostics, pollution monitoring, and beyond, even extending their utility into the realm of deep-space exploration where traditional life support systems may not suffice.

In summary, this pioneering research from Rice University unlocks a critical understanding of bacterial respiration that leverages electricity generation. By unveiling this hidden strategy, the authors shed light on the exceptional adaptability of life at a microscopic level, which may form the bedrock for revolutionary technologies aimed at solving some of our planet’s most pressing problems. The ongoing exploration into the capabilities of these bacteria underscores a larger narrative: that harnessing nature’s ingenuity could offer sustainable paths forward in our quest for both energy solutions and ecological balance.

With continued developments in synthetic biology and biotechnology on the horizon, there is a promising outlook for future innovations that could stem from understanding such microbial processes. As researchers and industry leaders push the envelope on electric power generation and the role of microorganisms, the findings from Rice University are poised to inspire a wave of new technologies that operate in harmony with biological principles. The question remains: how far can these discoveries extend the frontiers of science, and what uncharted territories lie ahead for biotechnology and clean energy?

Subject of Research: Extracellular respiration in bacteria
Article Title: Extracellular respiration is a latent energy metabolism in Escherichia coli
News Publication Date: 10-Apr-2025
Web References: DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.03.016
References: N/A
Image Credits: Photo by Jeff Fitlow/Rice University

Keywords

Bacterial respiration, extracellular respiration, naphthoquinones, clean energy, biotechnology, microbiology, deep-sea vents, sustainable technology, wastewater treatment, bioelectronic sensors.

The study stems from extensive research efforts spanning over a decade, highlighting the importance of collaborative scientific inquiry in advancing our knowledge of molecular interactions. The team has built on fascinating discoveries made as early as 2008, aiming to elucidate how proteins, the fundamental building blocks of life, acquire and utilize metal ions crucial for their functionality. This latest research introduces a unique protein derived from cyanobacteria, specifically designed to capture manganese, offering a novel framework to evaluate how proteins acquire metals within various cellular contexts.

Importantly, the findings illustrate that the process of protein metalation is not a straightforward endeavor. The binding of metals to proteins is significantly influenced by the availability of these metal ions in the cellular environment. The scientists discovered that when proteins are introduced into different cellular systems, disparities in metal availability can lead to incorrect binding events. For instance, a specific cyanobacterial manganese-binding protein introduced into E. coli exhibited a tendency to misbind iron instead of its intended target, manganese, underscoring the necessity of optimizing metal ion levels during the engineering of biological systems.

To facilitate the accurate prediction and refinement of metal binding interactions, the researchers developed a sophisticated tool known as a metalation calculator. This computational aid allows scientists to anticipate how different metals will interact with proteins based on intracellular metal concentrations, revolutionizing the approach to studying metal-protein interactions. By fine-tuning these interactions, the potential applications of this research extend to various biological reactions, with projections suggesting that nearly half of all enzymatic processes could be influenced by such engineered interactions.

Lead author Dr. Sophie Clough emphasized the collaborative nature of the research, which drew upon decades of contributions from numerous scientists. With the validation of these predictive models, there is palpable excitement within the scientific community regarding the prospects of utilizing the newly developed blueprints and calculators for effective metalation engineering. These resources aim to streamline the engineering process, greatly reducing the time and expertise previously required for successful outcomes.

Co-author Professor Nigel Robinson elaborated on the significance of this research, stating that metals are pivotal drivers of biological reactions within cells. The ability to engineer these reactions holds substantial promise for creating more efficient and environmentally friendly manufacturing processes. As industries increasingly shift towards sustainable practices, the tools developed through this research may help facilitate cleaner methods for chemical production, biofuel generation, and pharmaceutical development.

Funded by prestigious bodies including UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), the research team recognizes their ongoing support as integral to their success. With over forty years of collaboration and investment in scientific advancements, these organizations have propelled the exploration of biological applications aimed at enhancing industrial and environmental outcomes.

The findings also carry a broader implication for the field of bioengineering, as they present new insights that can be translated into practical applications. The ability to manipulate how proteins interact with metal ions opens the door to improved methodologies in various sectors, including those focusing on environmental sustainability and medical advancements. The researchers express their eagerness to share their insights with professionals across diverse fields who could leverage these discoveries to enhance their work processes.

As scientists and industry leaders become increasingly interested in the intersections of biology and technology, the innovative tools and methodologies presented by Durham University’s research team will likely be indispensable. This new understanding of protein metalation not only aids academic research but also contributes to the proliferation of solutions aimed at addressing complex global challenges through sustainable practices.

In summary, the advancement in understanding how proteins bind metals within cells marks a notable milestone in biochemistry. With the introduction of the metalation calculator and other resources, researchers will be better equipped to navigate the complexities of metal-protein interactions, paving the way for new discoveries and applications within agricultural, pharmaceutical, and industrial realms. This study embodies the convergence of scientific inquiry and practical utility, illustrating how fundamental research can lead to tangible benefits for society at large.

The researchers at Durham University pave the way for a deeper understanding of biological systems while also inspiring future generations of scientists to further explore the fascinating realm of protein interactions. This holistic approach to scientific inquiry and application ensures that the discipline continues to evolve, bringing innovative solutions to the forefront that align with our global goals for sustainability and health enhancement.

Subject of Research: Protein metalation and its implications for biotechnology
Article Title: Understanding Metal Binding in Cells: A Breakthrough in Protein Engineering
News Publication Date: [Not specified in the provided content]
Web References: [Not specified in the provided content]
References: Clough, S., Young, T. R., Tarrant, E., Scott, A., Chivers, P., Glasfeld, A., Robinson, N. (2025). ‘A metal-trap tests and refines blueprints to engineer cellular protein metalation with different elements’, Nature Communications.
Image Credits: [Not specified in the provided content]

Keywords

Protein functions, Metal-protein interactions, Biochemical engineering, Biotechnology, Sustainable manufacturing.