The physical foundation rests on two nonlinear effects that emerge whenever acoustic waves interact with suspended matter. The first is the acoustic radiation force, which arises from momentum transfer between scattered waves and particles. When a sound wave encounters a microscopic object, part of its energy is scattered, and this exchange of momentum pushes the particle in predictable directions. The second mechanism is acoustic streaming, a steady fluid flow generated by the viscous dissipation of acoustic energy. While an ideal fluid would simply oscillate back and forth with the passing wave and return to rest, real fluids with viscosity break this time-reversal symmetry, producing net flows that can be harnessed for mixing, pumping, and propulsion. Together, these two forces form what the review describes as a shared physical language underlying every acoustic manipulation system, whether it is levitating a droplet in mid-air or propelling a bacterium-sized robot through a blood vessel.

The choice of acoustic device architecture fundamentally shapes what a system can do. Bulk acoustic waves, typically generated by piezoelectric transducers vibrating at frequencies below 10 megahertz, penetrate deeply into tissue and are well suited for large-scale manipulation. Surface acoustic waves, created by interdigital transducers on piezoelectric substrates such as lithium niobate, operate at higher frequencies and offer much finer spatial resolution but shallower penetration. Between these extremes, gigahertz resonators push spatial resolution to submicron levels, while phased arrays of dozens or hundreds of independently addressable elements can dynamically sculpt complex three-dimensional acoustic fields in real time. Acoustic metasurfaces and holographic lenses offer a passive alternative, encoding intricate wavefront patterns into engineered structures that shape sound without bulky electronics. Each architecture occupies a distinct position in the trade-off space between penetration depth, spatial resolution, power requirements, and system complexity.

Perhaps the most striking demonstration of acoustic control is levitation, in which radiation forces counteract gravity to suspend objects in mid-air without any container. Single-axis levitators can hold droplets steady for nanoparticle self-assembly experiments, eliminating the coffee-ring artifacts that plague conventional drying. More sophisticated multiaxis systems and phased-array platforms can transport elongated objects along arbitrary three-dimensional paths, and holographic acoustic tweezers have even been integrated with visual displays and haptic feedback to create levitating volumetric interfaces. The review notes that the principal bottleneck lies in the trade-off between trapping stiffness and workspace size: adding more transducer elements improves spatial control but dramatically increases cost and complexity, while most current systems can still manipulate only one or a few objects at a time.

In liquid environments, acoustic manipulation reaches its greatest practical maturity. Acoustic tweezers based on standing surface acoustic waves can trap, translate, and rotate individual cells with remarkable precision, and recent joint subarray systems have achieved full six-degree-of-freedom control of single cells by independently activating different transducer frequencies. Separation technologies exploit the fact that radiation forces scale with particle volume while streaming drag scales with particle radius, creating a natural size-dependent sorting mechanism. Tilted-angle standing surface acoustic wave devices have demonstrated separation efficiencies exceeding 95 percent for cells and microparticles, and acoustofluidic systems have been developed to remove donor-specific antibodies from blood in transplantation settings. At the nanoscale, oscillating microbubble arrays have achieved rapid, high-purity isolation of exosomes from whole blood in approximately three minutes, a capability with direct implications for liquid biopsy and cancer diagnostics.

Beyond sorting and trapping, acoustic fields can organize biological matter into functional architectures. Standing wave fields generate periodic lattices that pattern cells into ordered arrays, while Faraday wave platforms exploit low-frequency interfacial oscillations to assemble heterogeneous cell populations into spatially defined structures. Acoustic holography overcomes the inherent periodicity of standing waves by encoding arbitrary three-dimensional wavefront patterns into engineered plates or programmable metasurfaces, enabling the fabrication of complex tissue constructs. Researchers have used these approaches to build aligned muscle tissue within collagen hydrogels, construct hepatic lobule models that recapitulate key liver functions in vitro, and form vascular networks within hydrogels by combining surface and bulk acoustic waves. The review emphasizes that maintaining pattern fidelity at high throughput remains a major challenge, as does developing predictive models for the competition between radiation forces and interparticle Bjerknes forces in dense assemblies.

The most forward-looking section of the review concerns acoustically driven microswimmers, tiny robots that convert acoustic energy into autonomous locomotion. At the microscale, where viscous forces utterly dominate over inertia, the scallop theorem dictates that simple reciprocal motions cannot produce net propulsion. Effective swimmers must therefore break symmetry, either through geometric or density asymmetry, through acoustic cavitation generated by oscillating bubbles, or through sharp-edge oscillations inspired by the flagella of bacteria and sperm. Bubble-based swimmers are particularly powerful because resonantly oscillating gas pockets generate intense localized microstreaming that can overcome the drag of high-viscosity biological fluids, and their intrinsic acoustic impedance mismatch with surrounding tissue makes them visible to standard ultrasound imaging, enabling real-time tracking in vivo.

Recent in vivo demonstrations illustrate how quickly this field is maturing. Biodegradable hydrogel microrobots with eccentric dual-orifice cavities have been navigated by magnetic fields and tracked by ultrasound in mouse bladders bearing orthotopic tumors, combining propulsion, imaging, and drug delivery in a single platform. Acoustic microbubble swarms have been steered through branched cerebral vessels in living mice using transducer arrays mounted on the skull, representing the first evidence of robust upstream motion and wall adhesion in the brain vasculature. Model-based reinforcement learning frameworks have been introduced to enable closed-loop navigation of ultrasound-driven microrobots, with success rates approaching 90 percent in simulated-to-real transfer experiments. These advances mark a transition from task-specific laboratory demonstrations toward adaptive, intelligent swarm systems capable of operating in the complex, dynamic environments of living organisms.

Despite the remarkable progress, the review is candid about the obstacles separating laboratory demonstrations from clinical reality. The acoustic diffraction limit imposes a fundamental bound on spatial resolution that prevents subcellular targeting, and higher frequencies that improve resolution also increase attenuation and reduce penetration depth. Acoustic biocompatibility is strongly parameter-dependent: excessive exposure can induce thermal damage, streaming-induced shear stress, and cavitation that compromise cell viability and membrane integrity. Sonogenetics, which uses ultrasound to activate genetically engineered mechanosensitive ion channels, requires exceptionally precise pressure control because the therapeutic window between effective neuromodulation and adverse biological responses is narrow. In the vasculature, blood flow can exceed acoustic trapping forces by orders of magnitude, and tissue heterogeneity distorts acoustic fields in ways that are difficult to predict.

The path forward, the authors argue, requires coordinated advances across physics, materials science, biology, and engineering. Near-term priorities include standardized acoustic exposure protocols, cell-type-specific safety databases, and chip-scale integration with closed-loop control in physiologically relevant models. Mid-term goals encompass real-time three-dimensional imaging for navigation, validation in large-animal models, and the development of biodegradable or retrievable microswimmers supported by regulatory-grade safety assessments. Long-term, the field aims toward fully implantable or ingestible acoustic microsystems with artificial-intelligence-driven adaptive control for targeted therapy. Whether acoustic manipulation evolves from a specialized laboratory technique into a transformative clinical and industrial platform will depend on sustained interdisciplinary collaboration and on solving the persistent engineering challenges of manufacturing reproducibility, dosage control, and standardized performance benchmarking that currently separate proof-of-concept from practice.

Subject of Research: Micro- and nanoscale acoustic manipulation of particles and acoustically driven microswimmers

Article Title: Micro/Nanoscale Acoustic Manipulation: From Particle Control to Autonomous Microswimmers

Article References: Chu, J., Zhang, L., Wang, X., Li, W., & Liu, Y. (2026). Micro/Nanoscale Acoustic Manipulation: From Particle Control to Autonomous Microswimmers. Advanced Science, 13(55), Article e77557. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.77557

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1002/advs.77557

Keywords: acoustic manipulation, acoustofluidics, acoustic radiation force, acoustic streaming, microswimmers, microrobots, acoustic tweezers, surface acoustic waves, bulk acoustic waves, acoustic levitation, drug delivery, biomedicine