Rural groundwater, long considered a pristine reservoir of natural life, has traditionally been viewed as a relatively isolated ecosystem with limited direct interaction with anthropogenic activity. However, this new research disrupts that notion by demonstrating not only the presence of antimicrobial-resistant microbes in groundwater but also intricate genetic exchanges between these environmental microbes and human-associated microbial communities. The researchers harnessed advanced metagenomic sequencing and bioinformatic analyses to dissect the resistomes—collections of all the antibiotic resistance genes—embedded within microbial populations inhabiting rural well water.

The study’s meticulous approach involved sampling multiple groundwater sites across rural regions that largely lack direct industrial or urban contamination sources. Despite this, the small-sized microbial communities detected exhibited a surprisingly diverse and abundant repertoire of resistance genes, including those conferring resistance to critically important antibiotic classes such as beta-lactams, tetracyclines, and sulfonamides. This finding challenges assumptions about the emergence and dissemination of AMR primarily in hospital or urban wastewater environments, indicating that rural groundwater ecosystems serve as hidden reservoirs of resistance determinants.

Integral to this research was the application of high-resolution metagenomics, which allowed researchers to not only catalog resistance genes but also identify patterns of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) among microbial species. HGT mechanisms such as plasmid exchange, transduction, and transformation facilitate the sharing of resistance determinants, enabling microbes in groundwater to acquire and propagate AMR traits rapidly. The findings revealed overlapping resistance gene profiles between groundwater microbes and those commonly found in human gut and oral microbiomes, strongly suggesting environmental-human microbial gene flow.

Crucially, the study posits several hypotheses for the origin and transmission vectors of these resistance genes in rural groundwater. Environmental factors such as agricultural runoff, livestock activities, and diffuse contamination from human settlements may introduce resistance genes or resistant bacteria into groundwater systems. These environmental inputs, combined with natural microbial interactions within subsurface habitats, create a dynamic resistome wherein antibiotic resistance can burgeon even in areas with minimal direct antibiotic application.

Moreover, the identification of shared resistance genes highlights potential public health risks associated with groundwater use, especially in rural communities relying on untreated well water for drinking and irrigation. Exposure to groundwater harboring antimicrobial-resistant organisms may contribute to colonization or infection by resistant pathogens in humans, complicating treatment strategies and amplifying the global AMR crisis. This linkage emphasizes the necessity to expand surveillance beyond clinical and wastewater contexts to encompass environmental microbial reservoirs.

The discoveries underscore the complexity inherent in tracing the environmental dimensions of antimicrobial resistance. Unlike well-studied urban wastewater systems, rural groundwater ecosystems have remained understudied primarily due to logistical challenges and the assumption of their relative microbial simplicity. This research breaks new ground by leveraging cutting-edge sequencing technologies to reveal these ecosystems as crucial nodes in the microbial resistome network, capable of serving as cryptic hubs for AMR gene exchange.

Unlike previous studies focusing on culturable bacteria, this team utilized culture-independent metagenomic methods, allowing detection of diverse, often uncultivable microbes, collectively known as the microbiome’s “dark matter.” The inclusion of these previously inaccessible species broadens our understanding of how resistance genes disseminate across phylogenetically distinct microbial communities, including many ultramicrobacteria adapted to oligotrophic groundwater conditions.

The implications for antibiotic resistance management are profound. The study’s authors advocate for integrated One Health approaches that consider environmental reservoirs alongside human and veterinary medicine in surveillance, stewardship, and mitigation strategies. Improvements in rural water quality monitoring, targeted intervention to reduce agricultural antibiotic use, and environmental policies aimed at minimizing anthropogenic contamination are crucial steps informed by this newly uncovered resistome connectivity.

Additionally, this research opens avenues for future studies examining the molecular mechanisms facilitating resistance gene uptake and expression in environmental microbes, as well as assessing the viability and pathogenic potential of groundwater-derived resistant bacteria upon human exposure. Such investigations could inform risk assessment models and guide public health responses, particularly in vulnerable rural populations where water treatment infrastructure is limited.

Fundamentally, this study reveals that antimicrobial resistance is not confined within hospitals or cities but permeates the natural environment in complex, previously underestimated ways. By illuminating resistome sharing between rural groundwater microbes and human microbiomes, Gao and colleagues provide compelling evidence that combating AMR demands a paradigm shift—recognizing ecosystems once deemed isolated as active participants in a global microbial gene exchange network.

The findings challenge traditional microbial ecology and public health frameworks, suggesting that environmental stewardship and microbial ecology must be integrated with clinical medicine to forge effective responses to AMR’s accelerating threat. The revelation that small-sized microbes in rural groundwater act as reservoirs and conduits for resistance genes brings urgency to rethinking antibiotic use practices, microbial monitoring protocols, and water resource management policies.

This pioneering work also accentuates the necessity of interdisciplinary collaboration, merging environmental science, microbiology, genomics, epidemiology, and public health policy. As resistance genes cross ecological and geographic boundaries, insights from this study could catalyze new diagnostic tools capable of tracking environmental resistomes in real time, thereby enabling proactive, data-driven mitigation strategies.

Importantly, the study raises awareness about the unseen microbial dynamics beneath our feet, highlighting how the invisible microbial world in groundwater interconnects with human health via the resistome. As antimicrobial resistance threatens to undermine decades of medical progress, understanding and interrupting these environmental conduits offer hope for sustainable antibiotic efficacy preservation.

In conclusion, Gao et al.’s seminal research offers a transformative perspective on antimicrobial resistance by exposing rural groundwater microbes as active participants in resistome exchange with human-associated microbiomes. This revelation demands that scientific inquiry and public health initiatives expand their scope to include environmental microbiomes, fostering holistic approaches critical to addressing one of the 21st century’s most formidable biomedical challenges.

Subject of Research: Microbial antimicrobial resistance and resistome sharing between rural groundwater microbes and human microbiomes.

Article Title: Small-sized microbes from rural groundwater showed antimicrobial resistance and resistome sharing with human microbiomes.

Article References:
Gao, FZ., Li, P., Huang, ZC. et al. Small-sized microbes from rural groundwater showed antimicrobial resistance and resistome sharing with human microbiomes. Commun Earth Environ (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-026-03635-4

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This comprehensive investigation zeroed in on Klebsiella pneumoniae, a formidable member of the ESKAPE group of bacteria, which are known for their capacity to evade many frontline antimicrobials. K. pneumoniae is a familiar pathogen implicated in life-threatening infections, and alarming trends reveal its dissemination beyond human healthcare settings. Dr. Mauro Conter, an associate professor at the University of Parma’s Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, led the examination of over 500 wildlife fecal samples collected from Northern Italy. These samples originated from species including red foxes, crows, magpies, and various water birds — animals that traverse urban, rural, and wilderness areas, forming conduits for the silent transmission of resistant bacteria.

The research highlights that wildlife, despite lack of direct antibiotic administration, can act as reservoirs for AMR bacteria and resistance genes. Foxes contribute to localized, ground-based spread, fragmenting resistance across short distances, whereas migratory birds can serve as vectors for long-range dissemination via natural flight patterns. This dual modality primes resistance genes for broader ecological infiltration, intertwining human, animal, and environmental health in a complex resistance matrix. Notably, Klebsiella species were isolated from 32 samples, with K. pneumoniae present in approximately 2% of all wildlife fecal specimens, signaling concerning environmental contamination by high-risk bacterial strains.

A particularly disturbing finding from the study was that K. pneumoniae isolates recovered from wildlife exhibited nearly complete resistance to third-generation cephalosporins—a stark contrast to clinical isolates. While clinical surveillance in Italy reports a 19.6% resistance rate to 3GCs among K. pneumoniae strains, this study revealed 100% resistance among wildlife isolates. This disparity not only underscores the wilderness as a reservoir of potent resistance but also foreshadows the insidious spread of these formidable pathogens into human populations, potentially undermining current therapeutic options.

Equally worrisome was the absolute resistance to fluoroquinolones observed in wildlife isolates. These antibiotics serve as critical tools to manage serious urinary tract infections and pneumonia. Human infections in Italy currently demonstrate a more moderate resistance percentage of 17.4%, highlighting a troubling escalation in resistance outside clinical surveillance and raising questions about environmental pressures selecting for multidrug-resistant phenotypes outside hospitals.

The genetic backbone for these alarming resistance profiles includes enzyme variants such as NDM-5 carbapenemase found in the isolated high-risk ST307 clone of K. pneumoniae. Carbapenemases degrade carbapenem antibiotics — often the last line of defense against resistant infections. The presence of such enzymes in wildlife signifies an unprecedented environmental dissemination of resistance mechanisms previously thought to be confined to clinical settings. This mechanism allows bacteria to circumvent even the most potent antimicrobial therapies, raising the stakes in global AMR management.

The study emphasizes that antibiotic resistance is not merely a clinical or hospital problem but rather an ecological challenge necessitating a ‘One Health’ approach. The interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health manifests through bacterial gene flow via water sources, waste management systems, and natural wildlife behavior. Surveillance of wildlife populations thus emerges as a valuable early warning system, capable of detecting emergent resistance patterns before they become widespread in clinical environments. Monitoring these environmental reservoirs could empower public health authorities to intervene proactively.

To stem the tide of resistance proliferation across ecosystems, the researchers advocate for multifaceted interventions. Reducing antibiotic pollution in wastewater streams, refining sewage treatment protocols, and encouraging judicious antimicrobial usage in agriculture and livestock are critical strategies. Furthermore, restricting the use of critically important antibiotics exclusively to human medicine could prevent environmental reservoirs from becoming breeding grounds for multidrug-resistant bacteria, including those harboring carbapenemases.

However, the authors caution that this study’s sampling methodology and scope impose limitations on fully extrapolating the data. The actual diversity and prevalence of resistant bacteria in the environment may be underestimated, and direct transmission chains between wildlife and humans remain to be conclusively established. Larger scale studies bridging human clinical isolates, animals, and environmental samples across national and international contexts will be vital to unravel the complexities of resistance transmission dynamics, although such endeavors are inherently challenging.

Emerging evidence also suggests that climate change and its impact on wildlife behavior could compound the spread of antimicrobial resistance. Shifts in migratory routes, altered habitats, and ecosystem disruptions may intensify interspecies bacterial exchanges, thereby accelerating the evolution and dissemination of resistant strains. Addressing AMR requires integrating these ecological factors into a holistic strategy that transcends traditional siloed approaches.

Ultimately, Dr. Conter’s team drove home the message that combating antimicrobial resistance demands coordinated, interdisciplinary solutions embracing microbiology, ecology, veterinary science, and public health. Their findings provide a compelling case for incorporating routine wildlife monitoring into global AMR surveillance systems. By doing so, policies can be better informed, interventions more timely, and resistance threats curtailed before overwhelming healthcare infrastructures worldwide.

The sobering reality of AMR spilling into the environment beyond clinics exposes the fragility of current antibiotic stewardship efforts. Only by recognizing wildlife as sentinels and reservoirs of resistance can we hope to anticipate and mitigate the relentless march of resistant pathogens. This study offers a clarion call to scientists, policymakers, and medical professionals alike: the war against antibiotic resistance is a battle that extends far beyond hospital walls into the very ecosystems where human and animal lives intersect.

Subject of Research: Animals

Article Title: Wildlife as sentinel of antimicrobial resistance in Klebsiella spp. with genomic insights into Klebsiella pneumoniae in Northern Italy

News Publication Date: 16-Apr-2026

Web References:
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2026.1716432

Keywords: Antimicrobial resistance, Klebsiella pneumoniae, third-generation cephalosporins, carbapenemase, wildlife reservoirs, environmental contamination, One Health, antibiotic stewardship, NDM-5, ESKAPE bacteria, fluoroquinolones, AMR surveillance

At the heart of this study lies the revelation that bacteriophages, despite being potent MGEs, carry remarkably fewer antibiotic resistance genes compared to plasmids and integrative elements. Plasmids and integrative elements are well-documented vectors facilitating the horizontal transfer of ARGs, yet phages appear to maintain a different evolutionary strategy. The authors argue that bacteriophages maintain an evolutionary equilibrium with their bacterial hosts, where the bacterial investment in anti-phage defense mechanisms indirectly constrains the acquisition of ARGs by phages. This insight overturns the simplistic view of phages as mere ARG carriers and suggests a sophisticated biological balance shaping resistome architecture in groundwater environments.

Building on this, the researchers found that bacterial hosts with high inventories of anti-phage defense genes paradoxically displayed higher resistance to phage-mediated ARG acquisition. These defense systems, which include CRISPR-Cas and restriction-modification systems, act as immunological barricades against phage integration but at the same time influence the ARG landscape of the host bacteria. This dynamic presents an intriguing evolutionary trade-off: bacterial hosts fortified against phage infection may simultaneously limit the influx of ARGs borne by phages, effectively modulating horizontal gene transfer pathways. Such findings emphasize how antagonistic interactions between phages and bacteria can sculpt the resistome, rather than merely propagate resistant elements.

Perhaps the most striking component of the study pertains to the dual functionality observed in lytic phages. Traditionally viewed as simple bacterial predators, lytic phages were here shown to play a twofold role—actively suppressing ARG propagation by lysing bacterial hosts while indirectly promoting the enrichment of anti-phage defense genes in surviving microbial populations. This dual behavior introduces a paradox in phage ecology, whereby phages serve both as inhibitors and facilitators within resistome dynamics. Consequently, lytic phages emerge not just as agents of bacterial mortality but as modulators of gene flow, with potential implications for bioremediation and phage therapy efforts aimed at mitigating antibiotic resistance.

Intriguingly, the research also traced ARG inheritance pathways, uncovering that vertical transmission sustains antimicrobial resistance in a notable fraction—11.2%—of groundwater microbial populations lacking mobile genetic elements. This vertical inheritance indicates that ARGs can persist across microbial generations independently of horizontal gene transfer, further complicating our understanding of resistance dissemination. Such persistence mechanisms underscore the resilience of environmental resistomes and highlight the necessity of considering both horizontal and vertical gene flow in devising strategies to combat antibiotic resistance leveraging the natural microbial ecology.

A deeper exploration of the metagenomic data revealed the co-occurrence of ARGs with genes related to denitrification — a crucial biogeochemical process in nitrogen cycling — within shared bacterial hosts. This co-localization suggests that phages may mediate linked evolutionary trajectories between resistance determinants and metabolic functionality. The coupling of resistome dynamics with essential ecosystem functions such as denitrification points to an integrated ecological framework where environmental pressures, microbial adaptations, and viral vectors intertwine. Understanding this relationship opens new avenues for ecological management practices that seek to balance microbial community health with the containment of antibiotic resistance.

The global scale of the investigation, spanning diverse aquifer systems, lends robustness and universality to the conclusions. By compiling groundwater metagenomes from geographically and chemically diverse settings, the study provides a comprehensive snapshot of resistome evolution across ecosystems often overlooked in ARG research. This approach underscores the potential for groundwater to act as a hidden reservoir and conduit for antibiotic resistance, warranting heightened attention in environmental microbiology and public health arenas.

Mechanistically, the research employed state-of-the-art metagenomic assembly and annotation techniques to differentiate phage-borne ARGs from those carried by plasmids and integrative elements. By parsing genetic data with precision, the team distinguished the contributions of various MGEs to resistome composition and illuminated the underappreciated regulatory influence bacteriophages have on gene flow. This meticulous methodological framework serves as a new benchmark for future studies aiming to unravel the microbial gene exchange networks in complex environments.

The study also provokes a necessary reconsideration of phage therapy’s role in clinical and environmental settings. While phages hold promise as alternatives to traditional antibiotics, their influence on resistome dynamics—both as suppressors and potential facilitators of resistance dissemination—suggests that phage application must be guided by a nuanced understanding of viral ecology. The dualistic nature of lytic phages in controlling and indirectly shaping ARG landscapes cautions against simplistic therapeutic deployments and inspires a phage-centric approach that considers evolutionary and ecological contexts.

Future research inspired by this work may delve deeper into the molecular mechanisms underpinning the evolutionary equilibrium between phages and their bacterial hosts. For instance, how do phage-host interactions evolve in response to fluctuating environmental pressures? How does the network of defense genes adapt to phage predation over time? These questions harbor critical implications for manipulating microbial communities to curb the rise of antimicrobial resistance or enhance biogeochemical functions.

Moreover, this research invites integration with systems biology and evolutionary modeling to predict resistome trajectories under varying environmental scenarios, including the impact of anthropogenic influences such as pollution and antibiotic runoff. Modeling the interplay among microbial hosts, MGEs, and viral agents within aquifers may yield predictive tools for ecosystem management and resistance mitigation strategies that are grounded in ecosystem-wide principles.

From an environmental policy perspective, the identification of groundwater as a critical nexus in antibiotic resistance dynamics advocates for surveillance programs that incorporate phage ecology. Monitoring phage populations and their associated resistomes can enrich early-warning systems for resistance emergence and provide indicators of ecological disruption. Such comprehensive monitoring would aid policymakers and stakeholders in crafting informed regulations to safeguard water quality and public health.

Importantly, this research reframes the concept of resistance evolution beyond pathogens and clinical environments, extending it into natural ecosystems where resistance genes circulate silently but persistently. Recognizing the role of bacteriophages as gatekeepers and modulators of ARG flow elevates the discourse around environmental reservoirs of resistance and stresses the interconnectedness between environmental and human health.

In conclusion, the study by Cao and colleagues represents a seminal advance in understanding antibiotic resistance dissemination within groundwater ecosystems. By uncovering the nuanced roles of bacteriophages as both constrainers and vectors of ARGs, the research establishes a phage-centric framework for resistome evolution. This paradigm not only advances fundamental microbiology and ecology but also provides actionable insights for the development of phage-based interventions tailored to environmental settings. As antibiotic resistance continues to threaten global health, appreciating the ecological and evolutionary context of resistome dynamics is paramount—a challenge this work admirably takes on and elevates.

The implications of this study extend well beyond groundwater aquifers, suggesting that similar phage-resistome dynamics may be at play across diverse microbiomes, from soils to marine environments. Thus, further cross-ecosystem comparative studies may elucidate universal principles governing resistance gene flow. Ultimately, integrating viral ecology into the broader framework of antimicrobial resistance research offers a promising frontier for innovation in public health, environmental sustainability, and microbial management.

Subject of Research: Antibiotic resistance gene dissemination and the ecological role of bacteriophages in groundwater ecosystems.

Article Title: Phage-mediated resistome dynamics in global aquifers.

Article References:
Cao, H., Liu, S., Cai, P. et al. Phage-mediated resistome dynamics in global aquifers. Nat Water (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00558-w

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00558-w

Hydrogen sulfide, a simple yet ubiquitous molecule prevalent in wastewater environments, was traditionally viewed just as a metabolic byproduct or a toxic gas. However, the research team revealed that H₂S acts as an influential enhancer of plasmid conjugation, specifically boosting the transfer frequency of the well-known multi-drug resistance plasmid RP4. This finding is not only significant in demonstrating how a natural metabolite effectively accelerates the spread of ARGs but also exposes an often-overlooked dimension of microbial ecology within wastewater habitats.

The intricate investigation dissected the role of H₂S in expanding the host range of RP4 plasmid, enabling it to transfer efficiently to a broader variety of bacterial recipients within wastewater microbial communities. This broadening of plasmid recipient range is particularly alarming given the complex and diverse bacterial populations in such ecosystems, which often include opportunistic pathogens and environmental bacteria capable of becoming new reservoirs of resistance genes. By amplifying conjugation, H₂S inadvertently fuels the horizontal gene transfer that can potentially escalate the proliferation of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains.

Delving deeper into the underlying molecular mechanisms, the researchers discovered a novel plasmid-mediated regulatory pathway distinct from the canonical bacterial SOS response— a regulatory network traditionally associated with stress-induced increases in conjugation rates. In contrast to the classic stress responses that typically depend on host cellular signaling, plasmid RP4 uniquely employs an intrinsic sensor protein, upf32.8— now redefined as GlsS32.8 — to perceive intracellular glutamine levels. This plasmid-encoded factor triggers a de-repression of conjugation genes in response to glutamine fluctuations, effectively operating an autonomous switch that primes the plasmid for transfer.

This glutamine-centric regulatory mechanism also sheds light on a fascinating metabolic interplay between the plasmid and its bacterial host. Under H₂S exposure, plasmid RP4 orchestrates a targeted hijacking of host glutamine metabolism, redirecting the cell’s nitrogen resources to optimize the conjugation process. By manipulating the host’s metabolic pathways, the plasmid enhances its own mobility, ensuring more effective dissemination of ARGs in hostile environmental conditions heightened by the presence of H₂S.

One of the most significant revelations from this study lies in the evolutionary conservation of the GlsS32.8 protein among a broad spectrum of IncP-1α plasmids worldwide. IncP-1α plasmids are notorious for their ability to mediate horizontal transfer of multiple antibiotic resistance determinants across different bacterial species. The widespread presence of GlsS32.8 suggests that this glutamine-sensing conjugation activation system is not an isolated phenomenon but rather a generalizable strategy employed by highly mobile plasmids thriving in diverse ecosystems.

These insights amplify concerns about the global repercussions of H₂S-rich wastewater milieus, which act as hotbeds for antibiotic resistance gene exchange. The fusion of environmental microbiology, molecular genetics, and plasmid biology in this research provides a comprehensive narrative linking biochemical signals to epidemiological risk. The study posits that endemic hydrogen sulfide, long underestimated as a mere environmental metabolite, substantially heightens the risk of ARG dissemination, thereby intensifying the challenge faced by antibiotic stewardship and infection control efforts worldwide.

The implications stretch beyond wastewater surveillance to clinical and agricultural settings where H₂S presence and microbial communities interplay. Wastewater treatment plants, often the interface between human-generated waste and natural water bodies, could inadvertently serve as amplification hubs for resistance gene mobilization facilitated by this newly identified plasmid activation axis. Addressing these findings urgently calls for revisiting wastewater management strategies to mitigate ARG propagation at the environmental source.

Furthermore, the elucidation of the glutamine-directed metabolic hijacking invites innovative avenues for antimicrobial intervention. Targeting the metabolic nodes or the GlsS32.8 sensor protein itself could pave the way for novel strategies to disrupt the conjugation machinery, effectively curbing the horizontal transmission of problematic resistance plasmids. Such insights represent a paradigm shift from focusing solely on bacterial killing toward manipulating microbial metabolic networks to combat resistance spread.

The significance of these findings reaches into the core of microbial ecology and evolutionary biology, illustrating how microbial metabolites act as unseen yet potent modulators of genetic exchange within complex ecosystems. The study elegantly highlights the co-evolution of plasmids and their host bacteria— jointly adapting metabolic and regulatory strategies to thrive under environmental pressures such as sulfide stress.

While previous research has largely concentrated on stress-induced bacterial SOS responses triggering plasmid transfer, this work introduces an entirely plasmid-autonomous conjugation activation system, fundamentally broadening the theoretical framework for understanding horizontal gene transfer mechanisms. This fresh perspective demands that future studies incorporate plasmid intrinsic regulatory networks when modeling ARG spread in natural environments.

In conclusion, this pioneering research elevates hydrogen sulfide from a mere environmental metabolite to a critical biological signal accelerating the horizontal spread of plasmid-borne antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater ecosystems. The discovery of the GlsS32.8-mediated glutamine sensing and metabolic hijacking mechanism redefines the molecular basis of conjugation enhancement under endogenous stressor conditions. Recognizing the universal presence and conservation of this mechanism underlines a global risk scenario necessitating integrated ecological, molecular, and public health responses to safeguard against the unbridled propagation of antibiotic resistance.

With antibiotic resistance continuing to erode the efficacy of existing therapeutics, uncovering such intrinsic microbial strategies underscores the urgent need to develop innovative mitigation tactics. By bridging molecular microbiology, environmental science, and clinical relevance, this work not only expands fundamental biological knowledge but also charts new pathways for intervention in the ongoing battle against resistant infections. The hidden influence of hydrogen sulfide on plasmid mobility also calls for renewed attention to microbial metabolites as pivotal players in shaping microbial genetic landscapes, thus opening exciting frontiers for research and applied science alike.

Subject of Research: Antibiotic resistance gene propagation via plasmid conjugation in wastewater influenced by microbial metabolites.

Article Title: Hydrogen sulfide drives horizontal transfer of plasmid-borne antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater ecosystems.

Article References:
Huang, H., Lin, L., Liu, Q. et al. Hydrogen sulfide drives horizontal transfer of plasmid-borne antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater ecosystems. Nat Water (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00523-7

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00523-7