The research, published in the journal 3D Printing in Medicine, was conducted by a team from the Regional Hospital in Liberec, the Motol Faculty Hospital in Prague, the Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Kralove and the Technical University of Liberec in the Czech Republic. Led by Lukas Capek of the Department of Clinical Biomechanics, the group set out to answer a deceptively simple question: how well do the materials commonly fed into desktop fused deposition modeling printers actually mimic the mechanical behavior of pediatric cranial bone? The answer, distilled through mechanical testing and computer simulation, is that most of them do not, and that even the best candidate carries trade-offs that anyone building surgical training models needs to understand.

The team compared six widely available fused deposition modeling materials: polylactic acid, better known as PLA; acrylonitrile styrene acrylate, or ASA; PET-G; a commercial filament marketed under the name Simu Bone specifically for anatomical models; polypropylene, or PP; and thermoplastic polyurethane, or TPU. These were benchmarked against genuine ex vivo specimens of pediatric calvarial bone, the skull cap bone harvested with ethical approval from Motol University Hospital. The mechanical yardstick was the three-point bending test, a standard technique in which a sample is supported at both ends and loaded in the middle until it deflects, allowing researchers to extract the Young’s modulus, a measure of stiffness that describes how much a material resists elastic deformation.

The numbers revealed a striking spread. Native pediatric cranial bone exhibited a mean Young’s modulus of 375 plus or minus 204 megapascals, a value that reflects both the intrinsic softness of infant skull bone and considerable biological variability between specimens. Simu Bone, the filament explicitly designed to imitate bone, turned out to be dramatically too stiff, measuring 3380 plus or minus 14 megapascals, roughly nine times stiffer than the real tissue it is meant to emulate. At the opposite extreme, TPU was far too compliant at just 61 plus or minus 11 megapascals, behaving more like a flexible rubber than a cranial plate. Polypropylene emerged as the closest match to native bone mechanics, although the researchers note that printing with it posed practical challenges, since PP is notoriously prone to warping and poor bed adhesion on consumer printers.

Between those extremes sat the everyday workhorse filaments. PLA, ASA and PET-G, the materials most hobbyists and hospital makerspaces reach for first, all landed well above the stiffness of pediatric calvarial bone, meaning models printed from them will feel rigid and unyielding where a real infant skull would flex and give under surgical instruments. That discrepancy matters more than it might appear. In craniosynostosis procedures, surgeons rely on tactile feedback, feeling how bone bends, springs and fractures as it is cut, contoured and reshaped. A model that is nine times too stiff invites the trainee to apply far more force than would ever be safe in the operating room, while one that is too soft fails to convey the resistance that guides instrument handling.

The researchers also explored a popular workaround: tuning the infill density of the print. Fused deposition modeling builds parts as hollow shells filled with internal lattice patterns, and reducing the infill percentage is the easiest way to soften a printed part without changing material. The experiments showed that infill reduction does modestly decrease stiffness, offering a degree of tunability. But the effect is limited and gradual, and it cannot bridge the enormous gap between, say, a 3380 megapascal filament and 375 megapascal bone. Infill tuning, in other words, is a fine adjustment tool, not a substitute for choosing the right polymer in the first place.

Perhaps the most conceptually important finding came from the finite element analysis, the computational half of the study. The team built numerical simulations of the bending tests to explore whether matching a single global property such as overall elasticity is enough to make a printed model behave like bone. The simulations indicated that it is not. Regional deformation patterns, the way strain distributes across the geometry of a skull segment during loading, are critical for realistic simulation, and a material can match the average stiffness of bone while still deforming in the wrong places and in the wrong way. This finding pushes the field beyond the naive goal of hitting one target number and toward the harder challenge of replicating the spatial mechanical behavior of layered, heterogeneous cranial bone.

The implications reach well beyond the laboratory. Patient-specific three-dimensional printed models have become a mainstay of preoperative planning and surgical rehearsal for complex craniofacial cases, and they are increasingly central to training the next generation of neurosurgeons and craniofacial surgeons. Hospitals around the world have installed banks of desktop printers precisely because printed skulls are cheap, fast to produce and anatomically faithful, derived directly from patient imaging. This study adds a crucial caveat to that enthusiasm: anatomical accuracy without mechanical fidelity produces a model that looks right but feels wrong, and in surgery, feel is often what counts. The authors emphasize that anyone selecting materials for cranial training models must balance mechanical fidelity against printability, since the most mechanically faithful option, polypropylene, is also among the most difficult to print reliably.

There are also broader lessons for the growing field of medical simulation. The wide scatter in the native bone measurements, with a standard deviation of more than half the mean modulus, is a reminder that pediatric cranial bone is not a single well-defined material but a biological structure whose properties vary with donor age, skull location and the layered architecture of inner and outer cortical tables separated by diploë. Any single polymer, however well tuned, will be an approximation. The Czech team’s work, supported by the Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic under grant NW25-08-00228, provides the quantitative baseline that material scientists and biomedical engineers will need as they develop next-generation bone-mimicking filaments, and it gives surgical educators an evidence-based ranking for the materials they can buy today. For now, the practical takeaway is clear: if the goal is to rehearse surgery on an infant skull, polypropylene is the closest thing to bone that a standard fused deposition modeling printer can deliver, provided the printer operator is prepared to wrestle with its temperamental printing behavior.

Subject of Research: Comparative mechanical assessment of 3D printed skull materials versus pediatric cranial bone for craniosynostosis surgical training

Article Title: Comparative assessment of 3D printed skull materials and ex vivo bone for craniosynostosis training: a finite element analysis

Article References: Capek, L., Celisova, S., Taborsky, J., Vitvar, J., Benes, V., & Solfronk, P. (2026). Comparative assessment of 3D printed skull materials and ex vivo bone for craniosynostosis training: a finite element analysis. 3D Printing in Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41205-026-00347-5

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s41205-026-00347-5

Keywords: craniosynostosis, 3D printing, fused deposition modeling, surgical training, finite element analysis, Young's modulus, pediatric cranial bone, polypropylene, Simu Bone, three-point bending, patient-specific models, surgical simulation

The stakes are higher than the modest price tag suggests. Suturing is among the most fundamental skills in medicine: done poorly, it invites infection, excessive scarring and delayed healing; done well, it promotes faster recovery and better cosmetic outcomes. Yet a 2016 national survey of medical students in England found that 86 percent — 526 of 705 students across 16 medical schools — considered their practical suturing training inadequate. Forty-four percent reported failing to meet competency standards for a simple interrupted suture, 84 percent fell short on subcutaneous sutures, and one in five had paid out of pocket for additional courses. The materials available for practice compound the problem. Low-fidelity options such as silicone mats, foam blocks and fruit skins — bananas are a particular favorite — are cheap, portable and reusable, but lack the tactile realism of human skin. High-fidelity alternatives like pig feet, chicken skin and human cadavers feel right, but they are costly, require ethical clearance, pose infection risks and demand specialized storage.

The Augsburg team approached the problem from inside a curriculum. The university’s Faculty of Medicine introduced a competency-oriented model degree program in the 2019/2020 winter semester, built around a spiral curriculum that keeps linking theory back to practice and is aligned with Germany’s National Competency-Based Learning Objective Catalog, NKLM 2.0. Within the mandatory second-year skills course “Examination of the Skin,” the Department of Dermatology identified one procedure as a critical early milestone: the diagnostic punch biopsy closed with single interrupted sutures. Rather than bolting a simulator on as a technical afterthought, the researchers embedded it in a structured teaching sequence that mirrors real clinical logic — lesion assessment, disinfection, sterile draping, local anesthesia, verification of adequate numbing, punch placement, control of excision depth, hemostasis, wound closure and, finally, dressing. The model was conceived as a learning tool with defined competencies attached, not a gadget.

Everything began with light. Because 3D facial data count as sensitive biometric information, the team obtained separate ethics approval from Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich and scanned the face of a dermatological resident with consent. The instrument was an Artec Space Spider, a handheld structured-light scanner that projects light patterns onto a surface and triangulates their deformation into a digital mesh — a technology chosen partly because, unlike some alternatives, it emits no radiation harmful to the eyes, making it suitable for use near patients. The scan was imported into Blender, the free open-source 3D suite, where the team isolated a deliberately instructive patch of anatomy: the cheek, nasal ala and nasolabial fold. The choice was clinically motivated. These subunits are among the most common sites of basal cell carcinoma, the most frequent form of nonmelanoma skin cancer, and therefore territory students will most often need to biopsy; they also sit within facial aesthetic units, where cosmetic outcomes carry special weight.

Inside Blender’s sculpt mode, the researchers then shaped pathology into digital skin: two tumor-like lesions mimicking the morphology of basal cell carcinoma and a gaping wound above the upper lip. Flat air channels were engineered into the design to simulate the sliding of multiple skin layers — the subtle mobility that makes living skin feel alive under a needle. Because the final model would be cast in colorless silicone, color information was discarded. To fabricate the part, the team converted the positive model into a negative mold, digitally adding a one-millimeter outer shell with Blender’s solidify modifier, or alternatively subtracting the model from a cube using a Boolean difference operation. The mold was exported as an STL file, sliced in Cura with support structures enabled and printed horizontally on an FLSun Super Racer, a delta-style fused deposition modeling printer whose lightweight print head, driven by three jointed arms and a 48-millimeter stepper motor, can travel at up to 200 millimeters per second. Polylactic acid filament flowed at 200 degrees Celsius onto a 60-degree heated bed through a 0.4-millimeter nozzle at 0.2-millimeter layer height. One mold took 36 minutes and 9 grams of filament — roughly 18 euro cents of plastic.

Casting came next. The printed mold was filled with a two-component, room-temperature-curing silicone mixed in equal parts, degassed to drive out air bubbles and left to cure for several hours. After demolding and minor postprocessing — trimming excess with a scalpel, picking stray filament threads out with tweezers — the finished models showed a homogeneous surface free of layer lines and voids. The material choice was a small act of materials science in itself. Human skin measures roughly 21 on the Shore-A hardness scale, but because the simulator was cast as a solid block rather than a thin membrane, the bulk would feel firmer than the same silicone in sheet form. The team therefore selected a softer Shore-A 10 compound to restore a realistic tactile impression. Each block survives about 10 to 15 biopsy-and-suturing procedures before tearing makes it unusable. The silicone costs about 44 euro cents per model; adding the printed mold brings the material bill to 62 cents. The one-time design phase consumed roughly 30 hours of expert time — labor the per-unit figure deliberately excludes, and iterative problems such as bubble formation and insufficient skin mobility had to be solved along the way, including a material bridge built into the mold to allow realistic tissue movement.

The simulator debuted in the 2023/2024 winter semester, and the course numbers were striking. Of 82 participants, 58 completed an anonymous online questionnaire distributed by QR code at the end of the session. Fully 94.8 percent agreed the model closely resembled real anatomy, and the same share judged it an effective way to practice skin biopsies. Ninety-six point six percent reported feeling more confident about performing the procedure on a real patient for the first time after practicing on the model. Every single respondent wanted surgical exercises on 3D skin models to become an integral part of dermatological and surgical training. Students said the structured session helped them understand each procedural step and connect the hands-on exercise to the theory covered beforehand, and many reported feeling better prepared for the objective structured clinical examination at the semester’s end. The evaluation, approved by the ethics committee of Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, carries honest caveats: there was no baseline measurement, no comparator group, and all outcomes rest on subjective self-assessment rather than objective tests of skill.

What the Augsburg results underline is a finding that recurs across simulation research: effective skills acquisition depends less on technological sophistication than on task-specific realism, functional anatomy and the chance to repeat a procedure until it becomes routine. At 62 cents a model, realism of this order scales to entire teaching cohorts — a sharp contrast with commercial trainers, whose validation is often missing and whose price is not. The digital workflow is also inherently adaptable: the same scan-and-cast pipeline can be retargeted to other anatomical regions or to procedures relevant to general surgery and plastic surgery without substantial redesign, and future versions could integrate a simulated blood source to raise fidelity for advanced training. There is a second-order benefit, too. Students who grow fluent with 3D-printed trainers are also rehearsing for a clinical world in which patient-specific printed models of organs are already used to plan operations; fluency with the technology is becoming a clinical skill in its own right.

The authors are candid about the limits. This was a single-center, exploratory pilot: the model has not undergone formal validation, the cohort size was fixed by the curriculum rather than chosen for statistical power, and no head-to-head comparison against fruit, foam, animal tissue or commercial pads has yet been performed — a randomized comparison is now underway at the institution. Students also received personal suture kits for home practice, a didactic bonus that muddies attribution, although the survey was administered immediately at the course’s end. The model lacks simulated bleeding and varied tissue textures, and the silicone itself is not easily recyclable, an environmental concern the researchers note applies equally to foam and fruit. Their sights are already on alternatives: polylactic acid is biodegradable under industrial composting conditions but too stiff to mimic soft tissue, while emerging biopolymer composites based on gelatin, alginate or chitosan could one day reproduce both the elasticity and the layered structure of skin with a greener footprint. Adoption also demands technical expertise in modeling, printing and mold preparation, and access to hardware — gaps the team hopes to close by openly sharing data and instructions; a step-by-step production protocol is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

None of that dims the central image: a face pulled from a silicone mold for the price of a piece of fruit, carrying two cancers and one wound, teaching hundreds of hands before a single patient is touched. The Augsburg team argues its simulator directly remedies the shortcomings of the banana peel and the foam pad — the haptic flatness and anatomical vagueness that generations of students have quietly endured while paying for extra practice out of their own pockets. If the ongoing comparative trials confirm what the first cohort reported, the 62-cent skin may travel well beyond one German faculty, and the first biopsy a young doctor ever performs may increasingly be one that, in every way that matters to the hand, has already happened before.

The reliance on 7T MRI technology demonstrates the commitment to precision in capturing intricate anatomical details. Unlike conventional MRI machines that operate at lower field strengths, the 7T MRI scanner provides a heightened level of clarity and resolution. This technology allows healthcare professional educators to garner precise imaging that can then be translated into a comprehensive three-dimensional model. The accuracy of such imaging not only helps in creating extremely detailed 3D prints but serves to revolutionize the way medical professionals can visualize and interact with the human body.

3D printing technology itself has evolved rapidly, with its applications now penetrating numerous fields including surgery, prosthetics, and anatomical modeling. The introduction of the optic pathway model marks an innovative application geared towards neurology and ophthalmology education. Students are often challenged to comprehend the complex networking of the optic pathways involved in vision; thus, tangible models allow for enhanced spatial understanding. By having a physical representation of these pathways, learners can engage in hands-on exploration and experimentation that fosters deeper learning.

The creation of 3D printed models from MRI scans necessitates a sophisticated understanding of both the printing technology and the biological structures involved. The team utilized software that converts the data gleaned from the MRI scans into a format suitable for 3D printing, transforming abstract images into real-world, manipulable educational tools. This methodology not only streamlines the learning process but also addresses common learning impediments associated with viewing 2D images in textbooks or lecture slides.

As part of this project, the researchers undertook extensive validation of the printed models. They compared the dimensions and structures from the printed items against those seen on the original MRI scans. This meticulous process ensured that the final models were not only visually appealing but also structurally accurate. Validation is critical in medical education; it underpins the need for reliability and authenticity in teaching materials, especially when it involves complex structures such as those in the human brain.

The pedagogical implications of this research cannot be overstated. In an era where traditional educational approaches are being augmented by technology, the potential for 3D printed models in medical training is vast. Students can engage with their studies in ways that were previously unattainable. Through tangible interaction with these models, learners can enhance their comprehension of neuroanatomy, leading to improved diagnostic and surgical capabilities in their future clinical practices.

Moreover, this initiative highlights the need for interdisciplinary collaboration. The integration of imaging professionals, biomedical engineers, and medical educators has culminated in a cutting-edge resource that can be immediately applied in various educational settings. By fostering such collaboration, medical schools can utilize innovative educational tools that reflect the advancements in both technology and science, thereby better preparing students for the complexities of modern medicine.

Another significant aspect of utilizing 3D printed optic pathway models is that it opens up avenues for research and development within the field. By employing these models, researchers can simulate surgeries or neurological assessments with precise representations of anatomical variations. This adaptability underscores the potential for 3D printed models to not only assist in education but also drive forward clinical and research endeavors.

Furthermore, the success of this project may pave the way for similar undertakings in other areas of anatomy where 3D printing can offer supplemental educational aids. The possibility of constructing models of other intricate networks, such as the circulatory or respiratory systems, could vastly enhance medical curricula. This expansion reflects the broader trend of embracing innovative technologies within educational spaces to cater to diverse learning styles and improve academic outcomes.

In summary, the collaboration between Black, Blezek, and Hanson signifies a promising advancement in medical education through the integration of cutting-edge technologies. By creating a 3D printed model from MRI data, they have laid the groundwork for an educational revolution that emphasizes visual learning and hands-on practice. As medical education continues to evolve, such innovations are crucial in its pursuit of excellence in training the next generation of healthcare professionals.

The implications of this study extend far beyond the immediate educational benefits. The accessibility of advanced imaging and printing technologies brings to light an era where complex anatomical models can be crafted affordably and efficiently. Whether in urban centers or remote areas, the potential democratization of medical education tools signifies a welcome shift toward inclusive and comprehensive learning opportunities. The ability to provide quality education, enhanced even further through the use of detailed visual aids, aligns seamlessly with the global push for better healthcare education.

As educators look to the future, the role of 3D printing in medical training remains a topic of intense interest and exploration. The work done by this team serves as a beacon for other researchers and institutions eager to adapt to the changing landscape of teaching and learning in medicine. It demonstrates that with the right technologies, commitment, and cross-disciplinary efforts, the possibilities for enhancing medical education are endless.

This journey does not mark the end, but a significant chapter in the story of merging technology with education. Exciting advancements lie on the horizon, and the continuous exploration of 3D printing in various fields, including medicine, will yield dividends for years to come. The optic pathway model is merely the beginning, as it signifies a broader commitment to enhancing the effectiveness of medical education through innovation.

Subject of Research: Enhanced medical education through 3D printing of anatomical models.

Article Title: 3D printing of an optic pathway model from 7T MRI for education.

Article References:

Black, J.A., Blezek, D.J., Hanson, C.R. et al. 3D printing of an optic pathway model from 7T MRI for education.
3D Print Med 11, 47 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41205-025-00297-4

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41205-025-00297-4

Keywords: 3D printing, medical education, MRI technology, neuroanatomy, pedagogical tools.

The concept of 3D printing in medicine is not novel; however, its systematic inclusion in medical education has yet to gain the traction it deserves. The researchers aim to address this gap, suggesting a structured curriculum that not only introduces the principles of 3D printing but also encompasses its practical applications in various medical fields. This initiative responds to the increasing demand for innovative and hands-on learning experiences in medical training, where students are encouraged to engage with technology early in their careers.

Foremost among the compelling reasons for integrating 3D printing into medical curricula is its ability to create patient-specific models. These models can be used for pre-operative planning, allowing medical professionals to practice procedures on a replica of the patient’s anatomy. This tailored approach not only enhances the surgeon’s familiarity with the specificities of a patient’s condition but also significantly improves outcomes by reducing operation times and potential complications.

In addition to personalized surgical models, the researchers also discuss the potential of 3D printing in the development of prosthetics and implants. Medical students who are trained in 3D design and printing will be well-equipped to participate in the creation of customized prosthetics that fit better and function more naturally for patients. This hands-on experience is invaluable, as it empowers students to blend engineering principles with medical knowledge, ultimately leading to innovative solutions within the healthcare field.

The proposed curriculum emphasizes an interdisciplinary approach, whereby students from various medical specialties collaborate in small groups. This not only fosters teamwork and communication skills but also enables a richer learning environment where diverse perspectives can enrich the educational experience. For instance, future orthopedic surgeons could work alongside radiologists and biomedical engineers to design and fabricate orthopedic implants tailored to individual patients, enhancing the depth and relevance of their training.

To further the practical aspects of this educational initiative, workshops and lab sessions will be integral components of the curriculum. These activities will give students hands-on experience with 3D modeling software and printing technologies, bridging the gap between theory and practice. The importance of such experiential learning cannot be overstated, as it has been shown to enhance retention and application of knowledge far beyond traditional classroom settings.

Moreover, the curriculum is designed with the understanding that technology continues to advance rapidly. To keep pace with these changes, the educational program will include modules on the latest developments in 3D printing techniques and materials used in the process. By ensuring that medical students are educated on the most current advancements in this technology, the curriculum aims to prepare them for a future where such knowledge will be vital for their professional success.

The integration of 3D printing into medical curricula also extends to ethical considerations surrounding its use. As technology advances, medical professionals will need to confront ethical dilemmas, such as those related to patient privacy and the implications of creating body parts through innovative technologies. The proposed curriculum will tackle these challenges head-on, promoting critical thinking and ethical deliberation among tomorrow’s healthcare leaders.

Furthermore, the study highlights the potential for collaboration with industry partners. Engaging with companies that specialize in 3D printing technologies could provide students with invaluable insights and opportunities for internships and job placements post-graduation. These partnerships could enhance the educational experience, providing students with firsthand knowledge of the industry’s needs and practices while simultaneously fueling innovation through academic and corporate synergy.

As the demands of healthcare continue to evolve, the necessary skills for success are also transforming. The proposed curriculum acknowledges the need for medical graduates to be adaptable, with a toolkit of skills that includes technological fluency in areas like 3D printing. In cultivating these competencies, medical schools can ensure that graduates are not only well-prepared for current medical practices but also equipped to navigate the challenges of a rapidly changing landscape.

Adopting 3D printing as a core component of medical education promises to benefit the broader healthcare ecosystem. By producing graduates who are knowledgeable and proficient in utilizing these advanced technologies, the curriculum is set to drive innovations in patient care and treatment. Consequently, the resulting improvements in efficiency and effectiveness could lead to substantial advancements in public health outcomes over time.

Furthermore, the researchers behind this initiative are optimistic about the potential for broader applications beyond traditional medical education. They envision adaptable models that could be replicated in nursing programs, allied health fields, and even in patient education initiatives. As 3D printing technology continues to advance, it can serve as a vehicle not just for hands-on training but also for fostering a more collaborative and technologically savvy approach to healthcare.

In conclusion, the incorporation of 3D printing into medical school curricula represents a paradigm shift in how future healthcare professionals will be trained. This innovative approach not only prepares students for the practical demands of their careers but also encourages a mindset of creativity and adaptability. As the medical field increasingly integrates complex technologies, the ability to navigate and leverage these tools will be paramount in shaping the future of patient care and medical practice.

The study by Heiser, Ruther, and Salahudeen serves as a vital call to action for medical educators to embrace technological advancements to enhance teaching and learning. By fostering an environment that promotes innovation, collaboration, and ethical considerations, institutions can ensure that their graduates will lead the way in a healthcare landscape that is more complex and rapidly evolving than ever before.

Subject of Research: Integration of 3D printing in medical school curricula.

Article Title: Proposed medical school curricula for 3D printing.

Article References:

Heiser, D., Ruther, S., Salahudeen, O. et al. Proposed medical school curricula for 3D printing.
3D Print Med 11, 57 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41205-025-00306-6

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41205-025-00306-6

Keywords: 3D printing, medical education, curriculum development, healthcare innovation, ethical considerations, interdisciplinary collaboration.